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Grade 10 History UNIT ONE
CAPITALISM
DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM AND NATIONALISM 1815 to 1914
Capitalism
Capitalism has been the dominant economic system in the Western world since the collapse of feudalism.
In the capitalist system, most means of production are privately owned.
The growth of capitalism was influenced significantly by the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution:
first started in England in the 18th century.
was mainly responsible for the tremendous economic transformation in Western Europe and the United States of America in the nineteenth century. After England, Belgium, France, and the German states were European countries that became industrialized.
Resulted in the replacement of wind and water powers by new sources of energy and power, particularly coal and steam.
Created the Factory system to replace the domestic system (in which individual
workers used hand tools or simple machinery to fabricate goods in their own homes or workshops attached to their homes).
promoted the development of new socio-economic classes, especially: a/ the proletariat and
b/ the bourgeoisie.
During the early modern period, Europeans built a transatlantic economy in which the slave trade and slavery played a key role.
Modern industrial capitalism arose from eighteenth-century transatlantic commerce. Europeans made a large amount of money through their:
network of colonies and
sugar, cotton, and tobacco plantations. These riches sometimes referred to as
„capital‟, were used to fund Europe‟s industrialization.
As a result, the transatlantic slave trade and plantation riches were important factors in the development of capitalism in Europe. For example,
the slave trade delivered tremendous riches to British port towns such as Liverpool.
textile mills subsequently played a key part in the rise of the city of Manchester. In the capitalist system:
The means of production are owned by a small group of wealthy individuals known as capitalists or bourgeoisie.
The proletariats receive wages for their labour.
The creation of products and services is based on demand and supply, or free commerce and competition, as in a market economy.
The government imposes fewer restriction and interferes less.
The capitalist economy differs from the socialist economy‟s central planning structure, which is also known as a command economy in that, a command economy is:
one in which the government is in charge of the economy.
an economy in which the government controls the volume of production, their
distribution and prices.
Features of Capitalism
Private property
Competition
No/less government influence
Profit motive
Market price determined by supply and demand
In countries like Germany and Italy, industrialization was linked to the mass militarization and nationalism, which ultimately led to World War I. Then these countries felt that they had to build up colonial empires in order to compete with the longtime colonial powers such as Great Britain and France.
.Features of Nationalism and Formation of Nation States
Several great movements that occurred before the 19th century helped the growth of nationalist sentiment. These include:
a/ The Renaissance
b/The Protestant Revolution, and c/ The expansion of commerce.
The Renaissance with its developments of national language and its literature, helped to bring about a national self-consciousness;
The Protestant Revolution broke out religious unity of Europe and ended the supremacy of the pope.
Trade and colonies brought in wealth and helped to build a strong state.
Nationalism is:
a feeling of belonging and loyalty that causes people to think of themselves as a Nation.
the sense of belonging or feeling proud of your own country. It comes with a feeling that makes people support their nation and government in every activity that she/he chooses to engage in.
The first few years after the Napoleonic era were called a time of “reaction” when those in power wanted to return to old orders. These were conservatives who opposed change.
Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria drew the “Treaty of Vienna” in 1815, with the objectives to reverse all the changes that were brought about in Europe during the reign of Napoleon wars and restore the monarchies.
On the other hand, there were revolutionaries who spread the ideas of nationalism and opposed conservatism.
Factors contributing to nationalist sentiment
Economic- Concern for standard of living
Social- Concern for group values, culture, custom, language traditions
Political- Desire for political power and autonomy
Historical- Attachment to longstanding conditions and practices
Geographical- Affiliation with particular territory
Unification Of Italy
Italy was left completely fragmented by the settlements reached at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
Italy in 1815 faced three obstacles to unity.
1/ Austrian occupation of Lombardy (Lombardia) and Venice in the north and northeast of the Italian peninsula.
2/ The Papal States, the principality under the sovereignty of the pope; the Papal States straddled the centre of the peninsula, cutting the north off from the south. Often foreign powers, as for instance France in 1849, intervened to protect Papal independence.
3/ The existence of several independent states. These were:
One of the French border was the Kingdom of Sardinia, also called Piedmont- Sardinia, which had slowly expanded since the Middle Ages and was the most advanced state in Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia consisted of the region called Piedmont in northwestern Italy and the island of Sardinia.
The Kingdom of the two Sicilies occupied the southern half of the peninsula and the island of Sicily.
Other small states were the duchies of Tuscany (Toscana), Parma, and Modena, all governed by relatives of the Habsburgs, the family that ruled Austria. In each of these states, the monarch exercised absolute powers of government.
Leaders and the process of the unification movement of Italy
Giuseppe Mazzini:
had a vision for a united Italy.
viewed “Nation States” to be a necessary and opposed monarchy.
was a member of the Carbonari, a secret society of Italian unification formed to abolish foreign rules in Italy.
founded a movement called “Young Italy” in 1831. The movement attracted tens of thousands of Italians.
wanted a liberal democratic republic to govern a united Italy.
played a leading role in the 1848 Revolution.
was a leader of a Roman republic proclaimed in the Papal States for a short period. But the French forces overthrew the republic established by Mazzini.
Count Camillo di Cavour:
became prime minister of the independent Kingdom of Sardinia in 1852.
was an aristocrat and well-educated.
took part in the 1848 revolutions.
strengthened Piedmont by promoting industry, encouraging railroad building, improving agriculture, fostering education and enlarging the army.
disliked absolutism and favoured the British type of parliamentary government.
wanted Italy to be both industrialized and united.
tried to reduce the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in politics.
searched for allies against Austria due to Austria was the greatest obstacle to Italian unity.
Count Camillo di Cavour
In 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III made a secret agreement. Following this:
Napoleon agreed to send troops to drive the Austrians out of Lombardy and Venetia if Austria declared war on Sardinia.
For Napoleon‟s favour, Cavour promised to give the regions of Nice and Savoy to France.
Cavour gets controlled Parma, Modena and Tuscany and these states drove out their pro-Austrian rulers, and by plebiscites, they voted to be annexed to Sardinia.
Cavour successfully provoked (maneuvered) a declaration of war by Austria on Piedmont in April 1859. Napoleon III then intervened on the side of Piedmont against Austria. The combined force invaded Lombardy and defeated the Austrian army at the Battles of Magenta and Salferino in June 1859. The Austrians were driven out of Lombardy but still held Venetia. France was to keep Nice and Savoy.
Giuseppe Garibaldi:
Was the leader of Italian nationalists in southern Italy.
led the Red Shirts, an army that wore bright red shirts into battle. They captured the island of Sicily and then crossed into the Italian mainland. They conquered Southern areas and agreed to unite with Piedmont-Sardinia in the north.
agreed to hand over power to Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. In 1861, the kingdom of Italy was established, and King Victor Emmanuel II became its king. The new kingdom included every part of Italy except Venetia and the Papal States.
The Unification of Italy was completed when Venetia and Papal States became part of Italy. i.e:
In 1866, following the defeat of Austria in the Seven Weeks War
(Austro- Prussian war), Italy got Venetia.
When the Franco-Prussian war broke out in 1870, all of the French armies withdrew from Italy. Then, the Italians entered Rome and this finalized the unification of Italy in the same year (1870). In 1870, Rome was proclaimed the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. The Pope, however, continued to govern a section of Rome known as Vatican City.
Although Italy was politically united, many problems continued. These include:
Regional Division: Lack of stability as few thee Italians were experienced in self- government.
The tension between the industrialized North and the agrarian South.
Hostility between the Roman Catholic Church and the government. The government granted the papacy limited rights, and control over church properties.
The formation of a secret society known as the Mafia, a kind of state within state,
which the central government was powerless to control.
There were some developments after unification:
A standard form of the Italian language was introduced to help unify the people.
Growth of industrialization and urbanization mainly in north Italy.
Expansion of modern education.
Creation of a strong national army
Unification of Germany
In the mid nineteenth century, many Germans were driven by nationalistic feelings to support a unified Germany.
In 1815, the Congress of Vienna created the German Confederation, which consisted of 39 separate autonomous states. While the Austrian Empire usually dominated the German Confederation, the state of Prussia took the lead in unifying them into Germany.
The 1848 revolution failed to establish a unified German state.
The Various forces that opposed to the unification of Germany before 1870 were: 1/ Foreign powers namely Austria, Russia, and France;
2/ Small German states who feared Prussian domination; and 3/ The Catholic states, which feared domination by Protestants.
Steps toward Unification
Under the dominance of the Napoleonic French Empire (1804–1814), the Germans developed a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their lands. The development of the German railway was the first indicator of a unified state. As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity.
During the Revolution of 1848, the German liberals initiated a movement for a unified Germany. The movement emphasized the importance of tradition, education, and linguistic unity of people in a geographic region. However, the Revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German-speaking states because of division of the German ruling classes on the type of government they wanted to establish.
The Zollverein- in 1834, Germans (Prussia) created the Zollverein in 1819 that realized in1834. It was an economic alliance between the German states (except Austria), which promoted trade and a strong economy. This custom union allowed for the removal of tariffs on products traded between German states.
Bismarck‟s Plan for Germany
Otto von Bismarck:
was a conservative politician and a leading force behind German unification.
came from the Junker class, or the landed nobility, in Prussia.
was a prominent figure in Prussian politics. In 1862, the new Prussian king, Wilhelm I, chose Bismarck as prime minister.
favoured German unification under Prussian leadership. Prussia was a very wealthy German state. It had large coal deposits in the Ruhr Valley, and a flourishing iron and steel industry. Prussia had a strong army and the military was glorified.
led Germany towards unification using his:
political philosophy of realpolitik, or “the politics of reality” and
the "Blood and Iron" policy (Military power).
Realpolitik: pursue goals by any means necessary (go to war, lie, break treaties) to unify Germany.
“Blood and Iron” policy- using military power to achieve unification of Germany.
German unification was achieved by the force of Prussia. The unification movement was enforced from the top-down, a product of Prussian royal policies.
Otto von Bismarck led German unification by appealing to national feelings and through the following three wars:
Danish War 1864 (against Denmark),
Austro-Prussian war/Seven Weeks War/ 1866 (against Austria), and
Franco-Prussian War -1870/71 (against France).
The Danish War:
The first war of German unification was the 1864 Danish War, which began over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
As a result of the war, Schleswig was given to Prussia, while Austria kept
Holstein.
The Austro-Prussian/Seven weeks/ War of 1866:
The Seven Weeks War, which was a war between Prussia and Austria was not simply to control the territory of Schleswig and Holstein. More importantly, it was about the leadership of Germany.
In this war, Prussia was supported by Italy in its move. The small German states that feared Prussian domination were on the side of Austria. At the Battle of Königgrätz ( Sadowa) on 3 July 1866, the Prussian army quickly defeated the Austrian forces.
Results of the Seven weeks war:
Holstein was annexed by Prussia
Austria was excluded from German affairs
Venetia was given to Italy
The North German Confederation was formed under the leadership of Prussia. It consisted of all German states except states in the south, where the people, were liberal and Catholic.
The Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71
This was a conflict between France and Prussia in 1870–1871. Accordingly:
To provoke France to declare war on Prussia, Bismarck published the Ems Telegram, a carefully edited version of a conversation between King Wilhelm and the French ambassador to Prussia. The Ems Telegram was significant because it encouraged France to declare war on Prussia in 1870. This conversation inflamed popular sentiment on both sides in favor of war.
Napoleon soon declared war on Prussia. Then, the Southern German states of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse Darmstadt entered the war on the side of Prussia opposing French invasion.
On September 2, 1870, French forces were defeated at the battle of Sedan. The defeat brought the French Second Empire to an end.
The proclamation of the new German Empire at Versailles was the
pinnacle/highest stage or level/ of Bismarck's efforts to unite Germany.
In the Treaty of Frankfurt signed on 10 May 1871:
France agreed to cede to Germany the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, rich areas in coal and iron;
France agreed to pay huge war indemnities to Germany.
In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris, with King William I of Prussia as German Emperor (Kaiser).
The American Civil War
The American Civil War:
was fought from 1861 to 1865
was fought between the Northern States of America, known as the Union, and the Southern States of America, known as the Confederates.
The Union wanted to abolish slavery in the USA, whereas the Confederates wanted to keep slavery as it formed the basis of their economy.
Most of the fighting took place in the south, leaving the southern states devastated. The seceding southern states did not aim to take over the United States government. Rather, they wanted to declare themselves independent.
The difference between the North and the South
North
South
A region of growing cities and industry.
A semi-modern plantation system dominated
by a few powerful slave holders.
A mixed economy- farming, small business and factories.
Mostly agriculture dominated by large plantations; little industry.
Believed slavery was unfair competition for
business and factory owners because slaves did not have to be paid.
Believed slavery was natural and the modern
factories and capitalist business made white workers into „wage slaves‟.
For nearly a century, the people and politicians of the northern and southern states had been clashing over:
economic interests
cultural values
the power of the federal government to control the states and
most importantly, slavery. These issues eventually led to the civil war.
The southern economy depended mainly on cotton. The white plantation owners in the southern states viewed slavery as essential for their survival.
As the economy of the northerners was based more on the industry than agriculture, they hired people as factory workers at low wages, thus reducing the need for enslaved people in the north.
The economic disparity between the north and the south led to opposing differences in societal and political views.
In the North
In the South
The influx of immigrants
contributed to a society in which people of different cultures and classes lived and worked together
Continued to hold onto a social
order based on white supremacy in both private and political life.
Many in the north came to view
slavery as not just socially unjust, but morally wrong. In the north, there was a strong anti-slavery movement known as Abolitionism
There were slave states that wanted
slavery and slave holding continued to be legal institution.
The term abolitionist generally refers to dedicated opponents of slavery in the early 19th century America. In the 1830s, the movement gathered some momentum. Some famous leaders of this movement were:
William Lloyd Garrison and
Frederick Douglass.
Abraham Lincoln:
won the presidential election in the year 1860.
amended the constitution.
Lincoln and the Republicans promised to prevent the spread of slavery into newly incorporated territories.
Shortly after the election of Abraham Lincoln, eleven southern states formed the Confederacy led by Jefferson Davis, a rich plantation owner, and declared secession. This resulted in the 1861 outbreak of civil war which ended in 1865.
In January 1863, Lincoln issued:
The Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves in those parts of the country that rebelled against the United States.
The Homestead Law, a decree allowed all citizens including the freed slaves to won plots of land for personal use.
Later, amendments were made to the constitution that strengthened the principles of equality. This was a turning point in the American civil war. Many slaves from southern states flocked to the north and join the Federal army.
The last Confederate surrender occurred on November 6, 1865. President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer, on April 14, 1865.
Results of the civil war:
On December 6, 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment was adopted, which officially outlawed slavery.
The collapse of the plantation economy in the southern part.
The rise of industrialization, larger city centres, and the development of infrastructures such as railroads, banks, and factories in the southern part of the USA. However, progress was slow.
The constitutional changes acted as a point of departure in the struggle for equal civil and human rights.
Did not abolish racism.
Nationalism and the “Eastern Question”
The Eastern Question:
was a diplomatic problem posed in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
arose as a result of the rise of nationalist feelings among the Balkan peoples, the declining Turkish (Ottoman) empire and the divergent interests of Great powers in the near east.
The Balkans were part of the decaying Ottoman Empire. This region was home to peoples with multi-ethnic backgrounds, such as Serbs, Bulgarians, Rumanians, and Greeks.
In the early 1800s, discontent in the Balkan region was increased by the rise of the nationalism.
Following the decline of the Ottoman Turkish rule in this region, different countries competed to dominate the Balkans.
By 1830, Greece became an independent state and Serbia achieved some self- rule.
In the 1850s and 60s, independence and nationalist movements among the people of the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire grew bigger and stronger.
Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany followed their own national interests in the Balkan region. The foreign powers intervened for their own ends in the struggles between the Turks and the nationalist groups.
Russia:
Russia supported the Balkan nationalists for several reasons:
The Russians were Slavs, like the Bulgarians and the Serbs.
The Russians were Orthodox Christians as were many of the discontented Balkan groups.
Moreover, Russia wanted to gain access to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
Britain:
Britain‟s main concern was;
to protect its interests in India and did not want the Russians in the Mediterranean, where they might challenge their sea power.
granted support to the Turks to suppress the nationalist movements.
Austria:
Austria supported the Ottomans because they did not want Russian expansion in the region.
Revolts broke out in several parts of the Balkan region in 1875.
Romania, Montenegro and Serbia got their independence in 1878.
Between 1878 and 1913, the Ottoman Empire was reduced in size because Great Britain, Austria, France and Italy shared its territories. As a result, tension and hostility were rising to a dangerous level.
UNIT TWO
Africa and Colonial Resistance 1880s-1960s
Colonialism:
is defined as the direct and total dominance of one country by another based on the possession of state authority by a foreign power.
occurs when one country subjugates another, conquering and exploiting its people. The notion of colonialism
its notion is inextricably tied to that of imperialism, which is defined as the policy or belief of using power and influence to rule another nation or people.
has been practised since ancient times. The ancient Greeks, Romans, Ottomans, and others established colonies overseas.
grew in scope since the 16th century, after the Age of Discovery. This was owing to advancements in navigational technology that allowed Europeans to travel to all corners of the earth.
Following the end of the Atlantic Slave trade, Europeans began trading with Africa in what became known as “legitimate trade.”
The term “legitimate commerce” refers to the commodity trade between Africans and European merchants after the slave trade was abolished. During this time raw products from Africa, particularly cash crops, were exchanged for goods from Europe. The era of “legitimate” trade shifted the relationship between Africa and Europe from commerce
based on human merchandise to merchandise of tropical crops. This heightened competitiveness, resulting in a race for Africa.
Between the final quarter of the eighteenth century and the 1870s, a large number of European explorers travelled out into the heart of Africa to conduct “exploration". Based on the timing and purpose, European „explorers‟ may be loosely divided into two groups.
First, the European explorers who arrived before the 1850s are believed to have been inspired by a spirit of pure and objective scientific inquiry.
Second a considerable number of explorers who arrived after the 1850s
were European government agents.
Meanwhile, although the European missionaries came with the good intention to evangelize Africa; the timing was bad. Missionaries:
came into Africa along with colonial administrators and traders with the plan
to introduce Christianity, commerce and civilization.
cooperated and united as vital element in the attainment of their set goals. Missionaries in critical times of need, depended on traders for funds, and relied completely on administrators for physical security and protection.
However, European missionaries preaching Christianity in Africa in the last two decades of the nineteenth century converted only less than 1% of non-Muslim Africans (outside Ethiopia) to Christianity. Because of their lack of success, the missionaries began to appeal to their respective European governments for help.
The Motives of European Colonialism
The main reasons for European colonization of Africa were:
A/ Economic: i.e:
Demand for raw materials such as agricultural products like groundnuts, palm oil, wood, cotton and gum; and mining like rubber, gold, and diamonds
The need for new market centres
The 1800s was a time of great industrialization in Europe . Factories required raw materials that could be manufactured into marketable products. When Europeans returned to Africa for more resources they brought back the manufactured goods and sold them to Africans.
B/ Political/ Strategic interest: Major world powers like Great Britain, France, and Spain were competing for power and prestige. European powers were more interested in dominating strategic territories and favourable locations for military and naval bases.
C/ The Civilizing Mission and the White Man‟s Burden:
The civilizing mission is a rationale for intervention or colonization of other non- western peoples like Africa. The Europeans presented themselves as having a mission of spreading civilization, commerce and Christianity across the globe. The clear implication of this was that Africans were inferior and uncivilized and Europeans were superior and civilized.
Another concept which is closely related to the civilizing mission is the so called „the white man‟s burden.‟ Originally, the white man‟s burden was a poem written by an English poet, Rudyard Kipling in 1899. This poem proposes that white people should rule over non-white people until they can take their place in the world by fully adopting western ways.
D/ Religious factor: Some missionaries supported the colonization of African countries believing that European control would provide a political environment that would facilitate their missionary activities in Africa.
.Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference
Before the 1880s, only 10% of Africa was ruled by foreign powers. i.e:
Most of North Africa was under nominal Turkish rule.
The Zanzibar Island was under Omani rule
The British in Sierra Leone
The French in Algeria
The Boers and the British in South Africa
The Portuguese in Mozambique and Angola coastal areas.
The above mentioned foreign rules were limited only to the coastal part of Africa. The rest of 90% of Africa was free from foreign rule and was independent. Later, European interest in Africa was radically changed.
A fierce rivalry, massive and rapid colonial expansion of Europeans in Africa from the
1880s to the first decade of the 20th century is called the Scramble for Africa.
Berlin Conference: 1884-1885
The Berlin Conference was held from 1884 to 1885 in Berlin, Germany.
The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was the leader of the conference.
The fourteen countries represented at the time were Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway, Turkey, and the United States of America. Of these fourteen nations, France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal were the major players in the conference, controlling most of colonial Africa at the time.
Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were competing for power within European power politics. However, Africa was not invited nor involved in the conference.
The main goal of the conference was to talk of dividing up Africa among the European Colonial powers.
The competition between European powers intensified when King Leopold II of Belgium and Germany entered the competition for African colonies. King Leopold II of Belgium wanted to make Congo his personal colony and for this reason, he employed H.M. Stanley to explore the Congo River.
Before the Berlin conference, in 1884, Germany had proclaimed Togo, Cameroon, and South-West Africa (Namibia), and in 1885, Tanganyika, as its protectorate.
At the Conference, the participants decided on the “General Act of the Conference ,” which laid international guidelines for colonization has 38 articles. The Berlin Conference marked the real beginning of colonization in Africa.
Principle of effective occupation: According to Article 35 of the Final Act, Colonial powers could acquire rights over colonial lands only if they possessed them: if they had treaties with local leaders, if they flew their flag there and if they established an administration in the territory with a police force to keep order.
Doctrine of the Sphere of Influence - According to article 34 of the General Act of the Berlin Conference, any fresh act of taking possession of any portion of the African
coast would have to be notified by the power taking possession to the other signatory powers. The conference resolved to end slavery in Africa.
The Congo Free State (today‟s Democratic Republic of the Congo) was confirmed as the private property of King Leopold II of Belgium.
Free navigation of the Niger and the Congo.
The colonial powers followed different means to colonize Africa. These were:
fake treaties and
force
A good example of such a fake or trickery treaties was the Wuchale treaty signed between Ethiopia and Italy.
Europeans were successful in rapidly partitioning Africa during the scramble, because of the following reasons:
The European military superiority that they enjoyed over Africa (the major factor). European powers were using professional and well trained armies.
Lack of cooperation and solidarity among Africans. Those weaknesses were made use of by Europeans to their advantage.
Colonial Policies and Administration
The European colonial governments used different methods of administration to administer colonies in Africa. These methods of administering varied from territory to territory and also among imperial powers. These methods include :
company rule,
direct rule and assimilation,
indirect rule and
settler ruler.
Company Rule
In the early days of colonialism, European nations allowed the establishment of private companies that were granted large African territories to administer. These companies were formed by businessmen who were interested in exploiting the natural resources of the African territories.
The company rule was exercised from the 1880s to 1924. The British South Africa Company (B.S.A.C), is an example of company rule, it was formed in 1887 and lasted longer than the British East African Company (B.E.A.C).
The B.S.A.C., under the control of John Cecil Rhodes, used force and coercion to administer three territories:
Nyasaland,
Northern Rhodesia and
Southern Rhodesia.
The Company governed the above three colonies until 1924.The companies‟ rule failed
due to:
a shortage of finance and
opposition from Africans and missionaries over their harsh company rule.
John Cecil Rhodes
Went to South Africa in 1871 and by 1889; he controlled 90% of the world‟s diamond production and also dominated the gold market
Served as prime minister of the British Cape Colony from 1890-1896
Extended British control to other parts of Africa
Direct Rule and Assimilation
The French, Belgians, Germans, and Portuguese are considered to have used this model to govern their African colonies. In the direct rule system:
African indigenous rulers and local governments were removed and replaced by
European personnel.
African chiefs were assigned at the lower levels of the administrative structure to collect taxes, recruit labour and suppress rural African opposition.
Under the direct rule, the French government considered its African colonies as part of France.
The French colonial policy of direct rule and assimilation was designed by Albert Sarrout.
The French colonial policy also incorporated association.
According to the assimilation policy, an African, after receiving French education, stood a chance of becoming a French. Assimilation accepted the inherent superiority of French culture over all others . So, in practice, the assimilation policy in the colonies meant the extension of the French language, institutions, laws, and customs.
The other colonial approach France used in Africa was known as an
association. It was the opposite idea of the assimilation policy. It implied that the relationship between the conqueror and the conquered should be one of “association „, not of identity and merging; it emphasized cooperation between the rulers and the ruled.
Indirect Rule
The architect of the British Indirect rule policy was Frederick Lugard.
Lugard exercised this policy when he was a governor of Nigeria and British East Africa. This system of governance used indigenous African rulers within the colonial administration.
Frederick Lugard, in his book the Dual Mandate in British tropical Africa, published in 1922, explained the importance of the indirect rule.
According to Lugard, indirect rule was:
preferable to administer colonies in Africa because it was the cheapest and most effective way.
reduced African resistance.
Unlike the French, the British made greater use of African customary law. The British indirect rule aggravated ethnic differences that emphasized differences in the dialect of language, dress, and religion.
Settlers Rule
Europeans came and settled in Africa, in many cases, displacing indigenous Africans.
Settler colonies were found in southern Africa including the colonies of:
South Africa
Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)
Angola
Mozambique and
South West Africa (Namibia).
In addition, settler rule was practiced in Kenya, a British colony in East Africa, and
Algeria, a French colony in North Africa. Here due to settler rule:
The fertile lands of the African peasants were taken and given to minority white settlers.
The administration was very harsh on Africans and racist.
Africans became labourers and landless tenants.
For example in Kenya, the Kikuyu, who lost their ancestral territory in the so-called white highlands to European settlers, migrated in mass to growing urban centres like Nairobi in search of employment.
In general, colonial administrative policies implemented by European colonial rulers varied from country to country. Despite these differences, all colonial governments shared certain common features, such as:-
All colonial systems were undemocratic,
Colonial rule was most often imposed without consent from the African people, and
All forms of colonial rule engaged in “divide and rule”.
Early African Resistance Movements Against Colonialism
Africans‟ response to colonial rule varied from place to place. Several forms of armed
and nonviolent resistance to colonialism occurred.
Nonviolent forms of anti-colonialism included the use of:
the indigenous press,
trade unionism,
organized religion,
associations,
literary and art forms, and
mass migrations.
There was armed resistance in different parts of Africa.
The first or early African responses to the colonial conquest occurred from about 1880 to 1914.
The second stage covered from 1914 to1945.
The third stage conducted from the 1950s to1980s was a period of decolonization of Africa. It was characterized by the emergence of national liberation movements that aimed at achieving independence.
Some examples of Early African Resistances
Resistance in West Africa A/ Ahmadu Seku:
was one of the prominent leaders of the Tukulor Empire in West Africa.
resisted French rule in western Africa from 1830s to 1845 using various methods. i.e:
In the beginning, he preferred to use diplomacy over armed resistance .
Later, when the French violated their promise and started territorial expansion, Ahmadu forces clashed with the French-Senegalese troops.
The French had recruited soldiers from the local people for their colonial goal. Finally, Ahmadu‟s forces were defeated and his empire broke up. He was exiled to Sokoto, where he died. Then after, the French allied with Ahmadu‟s brother to control the region.
B/ Samori Ture
Samori Toure (ca. 1830–1900):
was a Muslim leader in the Mandinka Empire, who engaged the French in protracted armed resistance from 1882 to 1898.
was successful in uniting under his administration most of the people in the vast area between the source of Niger and the Upper Volta basin. He led a strong
army of 30,000 men.
who governed an area in what is today Guinea, Mali, and Cote D‟Ivoire
strongly resisted French colonial expansion.
It was not until 1900 that the French finally captured Samori. The French exiled Samori to Gabon in Central Africa.
C/ The Asante
In West Africa, the British did not acquire large territories like the French. The British acquired the coastal areas of Nigeria and Ghana (Gold Coast) before the start of the scramble.
In Ghana, British colonial expansion faced opposition from the Asante kingdom led by Asantehene (King) Prempe. After the bloody war, the British defeated the local resistance and were able to establish their colony of the Gold Coast over all of Ghana in 1900.
The British used the strategy of divide and rule and their superior weapons as well as recruited African troops, to conquer the whole of Nigeria in 1910.
Resistances in East Africa The Maji-Maji Uprising
The Maji Maji Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challenge to German colonial rule from 1905 to 1907.
The four German colonies in Africa were:
Tanganyika (modern-day Tanzania),
Togo,
Cameroon, and
South Western Africa/Namibia/.
The German rulers imposed high taxation and a system of forced labour on their colonial subjects. They were forced to grow cotton and build roads for their European occupiers. As a result, a movement against the Germans led by a prophet Kinjikitle Ngwale erupted in Tanganyika.
Ngwale taught the people to sprinkle their bodies with sacred water known as
Maji Maji which “would turn bullets of their enemies into water.”
The rebellion spread throughout the colony, eventually involving 20 different ethnic groups who wished to dispel the German colonizers.
The Maji Maji movement was a spontaneous rising with no previous planning and central leadership. The Germans followed a „scorched earth' policy, destroying villages and crushing the uprising.
Resistances in South Africa
The Germans‟ rule in Africa was harsh and characterized by land alienation.
In South West Africa, for instance, land was taken from Africans and given to German settlers. The indigenous Herero and Nama peasants were forced to reduce their grazing land. Following the cattle epidemic of 1896-97, white settlers and traders moved to the African grazing land and provided loans to the poor African peasants to take native lands.
In 1904, the Herero people, led by Samuel Maharero, and in 1905 the Nama people, led by Hendrik Witbooi, rebelled against German colonial rule. However, both uprisings were crushed by the Germans.
Resistances in North Africa
After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Britain and France were engaged in a fierce struggle to influence Egypt. At the time, Egypt had a weak government, led by Khedive Ismael Pasha.
In 1879, both Britain and France agreed to implement dual control over Egypt.
In 1881, the Egyptian people revolted opposing the imperialist domination of
Britain and France. The revolt was led by Colonel Urabi Pasha.
In 1882, under the banner of controlling the revolt, the British colonial forces entered Cairo and defeated the revolt. At the same time, Egypt became a British colony.
UNIT THREE
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN ETHIOPIA FROM MID-19th C. TO 1941
Long Distance Trade in 19th Century and the Cottage Industry
The Trade Routes, People‟s Interaction, Major Market Centres, the Medium of Exchange, and Trade Items
In the 19th century, the peoples and polities that existed in the southern, northern and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn were connected by two major trade routes that started from Bonga, the capital of the Kafa Kingdom.
1/ The main market centres along these lines were Bonga, Hirmata, Saqa, Asandabo, Basso, and Gondar. At Gondar it branched into two. i.e:
the first went westward through Chilga to Matamma (Gallabat) and
the other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and terminated at Massawa on the Red Sea coast.
2/ The second major trade route also started from Bonga and passed through the famous market centres of the century like Hirmata in Jimma, Soddo in southern Shewa, Rogge at the foot of Yarar Mountain, Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul in northern Shewa and Harar in eastern Ethiopia. At Harar the route branched into two the first route went to Zeyila and the second to Berbera, both on the Somalia Coast of the Indian Ocean.
The principal commodities that dominated the long-distance trade in the century were
ivory,
civet musk,
salt bars (amole) and
slaves.
Medium of exchange
There was no uniform medium of exchange.
The salt bars (amole) served as a medium of exchange and were used side by side with Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT). MTT was a coin introduced from Austria to the Horn of African region by Arab traders at the end of the eighteenth century.
The long-distance traders had diverse backgrounds.
At each market centre, local peoples were active traders.
Muslim merchants were the most dominant group that travelled from the interior to the coast. Among these were:
The northern Muslim merchants known as Jabarti and
Southwestern Muslim Oromo merchants known as Afqala.
The Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were also active merchants in the trade between Harar and the northern Somali coast.
The Role of Cottage Industries
The Cottage industry and handicraft technology existed in Ethiopia since time immemorial. The most common cottage industries were:
Carpentry
metalworking
Pottery
tannery
Masonry
weaving
Jewelry
basket making
.
The general public‟s attitude towards artisans was not at all encouraging as they were mostly disdained and marginalized. Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and household furniture did not show any significant improvement and sophistication.
Among the cottage industries, blacksmiths were responsible for the manufacture of a wide variety of articles of considerable economic and military importance in many parts of the country. These included ploughshares and the iron parts of pick-axes, sickles and other agricultural implements, as well as knives and razors, spearheads, daggers, swords, bullets and spare parts for the rifles. Moreover, tent-pegs, hammers, pincers, drills, nails, hatchets, saws and files, steels for striking fire, pans on which to cook bread, bits and stirrups for horses and mules, chains and rings were also manufactured by smiths.
Any examination of the history of Ethiopian crafts reveals the creative genius of the Ethiopian people, as well as their importance in the country‟s economy and civilization.
3.2 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State 1855-1913
The making of modern Ethiopia involved :
the unification of regions and principalities found in northern and north-central parts and
territorial expansion into the southern half of the country.
The first emperor who attempted to unify the country was Kassa Hailu of Quara, who took the throne name Tewodros II (1855-1868).
Kassa became prominent when he was serving his half−brother, Dejjazmach
Kenfu of Dambya and helped him in defeating the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu in 1837.
Kassa fought against the Egyptians in 1848 at a place called Dabarqi, where he was defeated because of the Egyptians‟ superior military organization, discipline, and better armaments.
Meanwhile, Kassa became popular and this attracted the attention of Yejju (Warra-Sheh) lords. Therefore, they decided to have Kassa on their side through a marriage arrangement and thus they gave him Tewabech, the daughter of Ras Ali II. He was also appointed as the governor of Quara. However, Kassa felt that he was not treated well by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege Menen. Hence he gradually fought against the Yejju nobles and other regional lords.
The major regional lords defeated by Kassa Hailu before his coronation were:
Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852;
Birru Aligaz and the four other Dejjazmachs at Gorgora Bichegn on April 12, 1853;
Ras Ali of Yejju Dynasty at Ayshal on 29 June 1853; and
Dejjazmach Wube of Semen and Tigray at Deresge on 8 February 1855.
Of the above battles, the battle of Ayshal where the last ruler of the Yejju dynasty was defeated symbolized the end of Zemene Mesafint.
Kassa Haylu was anointed by Abuna Salama at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855 and became Tewodros II, King of Kings of Ethiopia.
Emperor Tewodros was a man with a mission. Tewodros:
understood the precarious condition his country was in.
knew that his country would not remain independent unless some fundamental measures were taken. So, he envisioned establishing a country that was territorially united and militarily self-dependent and stronger.
Established centralized system of administration.
Immediately after his coronation, he set out to unify the country. To this end he campaigned to Wallo and Shewa.
The Wollo campaign, where Tewodros encountered fierce resistance, started in March 1855. The capture of Maqdala on 12 September 1855 marked the end of Tewodros‟s campaign to Wallo for the time being.
The campaign to Shew lasted some five months. It was concluded after the Shewan force was defeated at the Battle of Bereket in November 1855. Tewodros left Shewa by appointing Haile-Mikael, the brother of Haile- Melekot, the king of Shewa who died in the middle of the campaign.
However, Emperor Tewodros faced resistances from different regions. Such as:
Seifu of Shewa, another brother of Haile Melekot, continued to challenge Tewodros‟s authority.
Areas like Gojjam and Semen also had already started rebellion against
Tewodros.
The conclusion of the Shewan campaign marked the peak of Tewodros‟ power and also the beginning of the end of his reign.
Modernization attempts of Emperor Tewodros II
Emperor Tewodros attempt to modernize the country by introducing drastic reforms in the areas of:
military
administration and
socio-economy.
In the military sphere, the Emperor:
introduced military titles like Yasr Aleqa (commander of ten), Yamsa Aleka (commander of the hundred), and Yeshi Aleqa (commander of the thousand).
tried to organise and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint („Era of
Princes‟) with a salaried national army.
established an arms manufacture at Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of European missionaries and artisans. As a result, about 35 cannons were produced at Gafat including his famous mortar known as “Sebastopol.”
The administrative reforms
To get some extra land to distribute among the landless and increase the productive section of the population, he confiscated church land and reduced the number of priests and deacons in each church to five.
In the case of socio-economic reforms, Tewodros:-
began the construction of Ethiopia‟s first embryonic road network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela.
attempted to put an end to the slave trade.
However, Tewodros‟s reforms and modernization attempts faced serious challenges and opposition from both inside and outside the country.
Internally, his administrative and social reforms were opposed by the forces of regionalism, who wanted to maintain their indigenous power in their respective provinces. The clergy saw his involvement in the affairs of the church as dangerous to the church‟s authority as an institution.
Externally, the lack of support from foreign powers with that assistance he planned to modernize the country brought him into conflict with the British.
The combination of the internal and external forces of opposition contributed to his eventual downfall. The British sent a very large army to Ethiopia to deal with the matter military after they failed to negotiate the release of the diplomatic mission and missionaries with Tewodros. The storming of Meqdela on April 13, 1868, by the British and the subsequent suicide of Tewodros brought an end to his reign.
Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throne emerged; namely,
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta
Kassa Mircha of Tigray and
Menilek of Shewa
Gobeze came to power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868- 1971). Although attempts were made to create a smooth relationship between the Emperor and Kassa Mircha, the quest for state power put them in enmity and it was brought to an end following a battle at Assem (near Adwa) in July 1871 in which the latter became victorious.
The former Kassa Mircha, (the later, Yohannes IV 1872-1889)
attempted to introduce a decentralized system of administration permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy. A typical example of this was:
his recognition of Menilek as Nigus of Shewa in 1878 by the Liche
agreement.
his designation of Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Nigus Tekle- Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.
succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominantly Christian provinces, including Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wallo, Shewa, and the Mereb Milash for quite some time.
sought to end the religious controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church (EOTC) and presided over the Council of Boru Meda (1878), where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOTC.
Ethiopian Muslims, especially those of Wallo, were forced to be converted to Orthodox Christianity. Hence, some superficially converted while others preferred migration to other areas like Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and Sudan. However, the Wallo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede Liban were converted to Christianity and changed their names to Ras Mikael and Dejjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively.
Menelik‟s territorial expansion
The process of territorial expansion carried out during the time of Menilek II can be categorized into three phases.
The first phase of his territorial expansion was made when he was king of Shewa (1865-89).
The second phase was from the time of his coronation as emperor of Ethiopia in 1889 up to the battle of Adwa in 1896 and
The third phase was after the battle of Adwa (1896-1900).
The First Phase
By the 1870s:
Menilek incorporated the Tulama and eastern Macha Oromo territories. The Shewan Oromo notables like Ras Gobana Dache played a pivotal role in the territorial expansion and the creation of the modern Ethiopian Empire.
The northern Gurage, the Kistane or Soddo Gurage peacefully submitted without resistance to Menilek while the western Gurage, led by Hassan Enjamo of Qabena, strongly resisted Menilek‟s force until Ras Gobana defeated them in 1888.
Menilek‟s territorial expansion to western & southwestern Ethiopia was concluded through both forceful and peaceful submissions.
The area south of the Abay River, particularly Horro Guduru was controlled by Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot) for some time up to the time of his defeat at Embabo by Menilek‟s commander, Ras Gobana.
After the Battle of Embabo, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba Jifar submitted to Menilek peacefully, who promised them to recognize and maintain their autonomy.
Some of the Oromo inhabited territories like in Arsi and Hararghe Menilek encountered stiff resistance.
For instance, it took him six different campaigns from 1882 to 1886 to pacify the Arsi Oromo. Finally, the Arsi resistance was suppressed by the forces of Ras Darge Sahla Sellasie at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886.
In Haraghe, the combined forces of the Harari and the Oromo attempted to resist Menilek‟s expansion. Yet, their forces were defeated at the battle of Chalanqo on 6 January 1887. This was followed by the appointment of Dejjach (later Ras) Mekonnen Welde-Mikael as governor of the province by Emperor Menilek II.
The Second Phase
In 1889, Menilek became the emperor of Ethiopia and he continued the process of expansion with renewed vigor. A year before his coronation, the country was hit by the Great Famine or Kefu Qan (1888-92), which devastated the nation and seriously depleted the cattle population. The immediate cause of the famine was the rinderpest epidemic triggered by the Italian importation of infected cattle through Massawa. The famine partly necessitated and gave further momentum to territorial expansion in southern Ethiopia. As a result, starting from1889 up to 1894, areas like
Dawuro,
Konta,
Kambata,
Bale,
Sidama,
Gamo Gofa and
Wolaita were incorporated.
The incorporation of Wolaita was made possible after the suppression of a stiff popular resistance which resulted in the death of a large number of people in 1894. The Wolaita resistance was put under control after Kawo Tona (the last king of Wolaita) was arrested. It was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo, Borana and Konso.
The Third Phase
In 1897, Kafa was incorporated after the forces of Tato Gaki Sherocho (the last king of Kafa) were defeated by Menilek‟s army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis. Similarly, Emperor Menilek extended his authority over:
Ogaden,
Benishangul and
Gambella,
In this stage formal boundary agreement started in 1897. The process of territorial expansion was concluded with the signing of boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial powers that continued until 1908.
Menilek II, like Tewodros II, was eager to introduce western technology and administrative reforms into Ethiopia. Such as Emperor Menelik II:
founded the first modern bank known as the Bank of Abyssinia in 1905
founded the first Modern School, Menilek II in 1908
introduced the first modern postal system
signed the agreement and initiated work that established the Addis Ababa- Djibouti railway with the French in 1894
introduced electricity to Addis Ababa,
introduced the telephone, telegraph, the motor car, and modern plumbing.
started to mint a coin to replace the Maria Theresa Thaler.
Signed treaty which delimited the boundaries between Ethiopia and the surrounding colonial powers. i.e:
The boundary between Ethiopia and French Somaliland (Djibouti) was delimited and concluded on 20 March 1897.
The boundary agreement between Ethiopia and British Somaliland was delimited in May 1897.
Boundary agreement was signed between Italian Eritrea and Ethiopia on 10 July 1900.
Ethiopia and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan boundary agreement was signed on 15 May 1902.
The British East Africa (Kenya) and Ethiopia‟s boundary agreement was signed in 1907,
The boundary agreement between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland was signed in 1908.
With the signing of these boundary delimitation treaties the process of defining Ethiopia’s modern territorial extent is completed .These agreements concluded over about a decade, were significant for the history of Ethiopia. They gave the country approximately its present shape. However, the delimitation on the map was not followed by demarcation on the ground.
3 External Aggressions and the Unity of Ethiopian People in Defence of National Sovereignty, 1871-1896
The second half of the nineteenth century was a period during which the survival of Ethiopian independence was put to the utmost test.
Emperor Tewodros‟s modernization drive emanated mainly from the understanding of this danger to Ethiopia. He needed the technical support of Europe , particularly that of Britain, both against what he considered to be the main threat to Ethiopia, namely Egypt, and to assist him in his goal of modernizing the country. As a result, in 1862, Tewodros sent a letter to Queen Victoria of Great Britain requesting military assistance through Consul Cameron. Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without any response.
Tewodros held Cameron directly responsible for the lack of response to his letter of 1862 to Queen Victoria of England. He also suspected him of conspiring with the “Turks”, i.e. the Egyptians, against him.
On learning about the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent a letter through Hormuzd RAssem, which did not satisfy Tewodros. After some communications, the British parliament decided to take military action. To free their citizens arrested by Tewodros, the British sent in late 1867, a large military expedition commanded by Sir Robert Napier.
With the help of local allies who had their ambitions and grievances against Tewodros, such as Kasa Mercha of Tigray (the future Emperor Yohannes IV) and Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, the British were able to make their march from the coast to the interior.
On 10 April 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros‟ soldiers, including his general Gebriye tried to check the advancing British forces but were defeated at the battle of Aroge. The following day, on 11 April 1868, Tewodros released his European captives/
On 13 April, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdala. This was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of treasures.
The British showed no interest to remain in control of the country and thus left immediately. However, the easy way in which the British accomplished their mission in Ethiopia created a false impression on the Egyptians about Ethiopia. So, they immediately showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa, including Ethiopia, with the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile. After making initial encroachments along the Ethiopian side of the Red Sea, the Egyptians prepared a very grand campaign to control the whole of the country. That came in 1875, when Khedive Ismail Pasha, the Egyptian leader, sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions. i.e:
First was the Zeila front led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha which resulted in the occupation of the Harar Emirate (1875 to 1885).
The second front was led by Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail‟s scheme for the invasion of Ethiopia and started from the direction of Tajura (Djibouti) but was annihilated by the Afar at the battle of Odduma.
Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops through Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and his general Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundat (16 November 1875), in which the Egyptian troops were severely defeated. The Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent army led by Mohammed Ratip Pasha and General Loring to invade Ethiopia. However, they were defeated at the Battle of Gura (7–9 March 1876).
The Italian Threats
The other foreign and most dangerous power which came to challenge Ethiopian independence in the last quarter of the nineteenth century was Italy.
With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region had acquired great strategic and commercial importance.
The Italian foothold on the Horn of Africa began when an Italian private shipping company (Rubatino) had bought the port of Assab from the Afar local chiefs in 1869. The port was transferred to the Italian government in 1882.
Moreover, Great Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy in 1885. Using these bases as a springboard, Italy began penetrating northern Ethiopia, Mereb Melash. But they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida in 1887, Emperor Yohannes‟ famous general and right-hand man.
The Mahdist Sudan
There was a parallel development in the northwestern part of the country bordering Sudan while Italy controlled some Ethiopian territories in the north.
The struggle of the Sudanese people against Egyptian occupation had gathered momentum and drove them out of most of the country and encircled the remaining Egyptian troops in the Kassala area of Eastern Sudan. The only way the Egyptians could save their lives was via Massawa through the cooperation of Ethiopia.
The Hewett Treaty
The British brokered a treaty known as the Hewett Treaty between Ethiopia and Egypt in 1884 so as to evacuate the encircled Egyptian garrisons. According to the Hewett Treaty:
Ethiopia agreed to facilitate the evacuation of Egyptian soldiers encircled by the Mahdist in eastern Sudan
Britain, on behalf of Egypt promised among others, the use of Massawa by Ethiopia.
The Ethiopian involvement infuriated the Mahdists and became the main cause for the clashes between the Mahdists of Sudan and Ethiopian forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889.
The first clash between the two came at Kufit in September 1885, when the Ethiopian forces were victorious.
However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia busy with the task of checking the Italian advance to Marab Milash, the Mahdists caused a lot of destruction to churches and monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity. In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot‟s troops at Sar Wuha in Dembia. At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haymanot conspired against the emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists. Now, Emperor Yohannes faced what is called the triangular tension, namely:
the Italians in the north,
the Mahdists in the west and northwest, and
his two vassals in the centre.
Hence, on 9 March 1889, the Emperor Yohannis marched to Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.
Internal divisions and hostilities among rulers would result in a huge cost to the country
and its people. Among others, Maqdala and Metemma are very good testimonies.
The Wuchale Treaty and the Battle of Adwa
As mentioned earlier, the Italians advance in the northeast was temporarily checked by the force of Emperor Yohannes IV. Following the death of Emperor Yohannes, the responsibility of keeping the territorial integrity of the country fell on his successor, Menilek II.
The Italians used the treaty of Wuchale to advance their colonial interests. The treaty:
Was signed by Emperor Menilek II and, the Italian representative, Count Pietro Antonelli in the town of Wuchale, Ethiopia, on 2 May 1889 to promote friendship and trade between the two countries.
Written in two versions. There were slight, but crucial, differences between the Italian and the Amharic versions of the treaty which created misunderstandings between the two countries.
The Amharic version of the treaty (Article 17) indicated that emperor of Ethiopia “could” use the good offices of the Italian government in his dealings with other foreign powers.
The Italian text of Article XVII (17) of the treaty explained that Emperor Menelik should use the service of the Italian government in his dealings with other foreign powers and made it obligatory.
Upon failing to get the revision of the treaty from the Italians, Emperor Menilek unilaterally abrogated the treaty in 1893. To achieve their intentions, the Italians crossed the Marab River, arrived at Adigrat, and proceeded to Amba-Alage. This
Italians steady encroachment onto north Ethiopia and the need to defend the territorial integrity of the country has been made clear by Emperor Menilek‟s call for mobilization.
Following Emperor Menilek‟s proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of the country gathered at Wara-Illu (in today‟s South Wallo). The people marched to the front irrespective of gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against the Italian aggression. Almost troops from all parts of the country participated in the war. The Adwa campaign had three phases.
A force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Amba-Alage
and forced them to retreat to Mekelle in 1895.
In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces defeated the Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, they came under siege that prevented their access to a well, which they used for drinking. The strategy was commonly called the “siege of Mekelle” and was believed to be designed by Empress Taytu. After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and left Mekele, and joined their compatriots at Adwa.
The last and decisive phase of the war was fought at Adwa on March 1st 1896. The Ethiopian forces were led by:
Emperor Menilek,
Empress Taytu and
war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Nigus Tekle-Haymanot.
Consequences of the battle of Adwa
The result of this battle was a remarkable victory for Ethiopians. At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded, and 3,000 were captured. On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been killed.
The battle of Adwa has had a profound impact on the countries involved in the conflict and the people who were fighting for their independence and rights all over the world.
As far as Ethiopia was concerned, its status as an independent sovereign state was recognized by the great powers of the world. The first country to do so was Italy itself.
By the treaty of Addis Ababa signed on October 26, 1896, and which concluded the war, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia. Soon after, several powers of the time (including Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others) also recognized Ethiopia as a sovereign state and opened their legations in Addis Ababa.
The heroic national campaign, the cooperation, and common successes of the peoples of Ethiopia had a positive impact in consolidating national integration. The victory has since served as a symbol of unity, independence and national pride for all Ethiopians.
The victory of Adwa was the first decisive victory of black people over a powerful white European power. So, for black people who were fighting for their freedom and independence across the world
It also served as a source of pride and motivation.
In Italy, too, the defeat led to the collapse of the government of Premier Francesco Crispi.
3.4 The Inception of Power Struggle among the Ruling Elites 1906 to 1935
The year 1906 might be regarded as a watershed moment in post-Adwa Ethiopia's political history. i.e:
In 1906, Menilek suffered his first stroke in this year, an illness that would claim his life seven years later.
Menelik‟s death was made worse by the death of his cousin, Ras Mekonnen Walda-Mikael, in 1906, who was widely expected to replace him on the throne. As a result of these developments, the issue of succession has arisen.
In 1906, the surrounding colonial powers, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy, formed a Tripartite Treaty, assuming that Ethiopia would fall into disorder if Menilek died. According to this treaty:
Britain will have a sphere of influence over the Nile basin.
France will have a sphere of influence over the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway zone, respectively, according to this pact.
The hinterlands of Italy's colonies, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland were considered as part of Italy's interests.
Emperor Menilek:-
established Ethiopia's first cabinet (ministers' council) in 1907 to address the looming crisis of succession and power vacuum.
named his grandson Lij Iyasu as his successor and made Ras Teesma Nadew as Iyasu‟s regent in 1909.
In the meanwhile, Empress Taytu's influence grew, but she faced stiff opposition from the Shewan nobles, who saw her as a significant danger to their dominion. They organized resistance against her, and she was forced to abstain from participating in the country's politics in 1910.
Iyasu:-
began to wield his full powers with the fall of Taytu (1910) and the death of Ras Tesema Nadaw (1911) and his de facto rule lasted from 1911 until 1916.
enhanced laws and regulations on the one hand, he announced a series of actions and policies that might be described as progressive and bold, yet contentious on the other. Some of Iyasu's actions brought together internal and external forces, eventually leading to his overthrow in 1916.
Reforms of Lij Iyasu
He maintained Menilek's modernization agenda, which included the construction of Addis Ababa's first municipal police force called Tirnbulle.
He tried to reform property ownership and taxation.
He removed the traditional Quragna system of tying plaintiffs and defenders together.
He outlawed the indigenous institution of lebashay, or magical thief catchers.
He integrated Ethiopian Muslims into the administration structure
Iyyasu was deposed on September 27, 1916, and Zewditu, Menilek's daughter, was crowned empress of Ethiopia. Dejjach Teferi Mekonen was promoted to the rank of Ras and named successor to the throne. Following Iyyasu's removal from power by a palace coup, Iyyasu's father, Nigus Mikael, tried unsuccessfully to reverse the coup. His plans were thwarted when his soldiers were decisively defeated and he was captured by the Shewan army, led by Ras Teferi, at Sagale on October 27, 1916, in the deadliest battle since Adwa.
The Period of Diarchy/Dual Rule/ 1916-1930
Power was shared between Empress Zewditu, Menilek II's daughter, and Teferi Mekonnen, son of the renowned Ras Mekonnen, following the successful palace revolt against Lij Iyyasu in 1916.
The political settlement of 1916 marked the start of a difficult and unusual period of dual governance known as the time of diarchy.
The period of diarchy was characterized by an ongoing dispute between:-
Empress Zewditu's adherents, known as the conservative or indigenous camp and
The progressive prince Teferi Mekonnen and his supporters.
The conservative camp was led by Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde.
The expulsion of the ministers in 1918, with the exception of Habte Gyorgis Dinagde, Minister of War from 1907 until 1926 was the first step towards enhancing Teferi‟s power. Habte Gyorgis died peacefully in December 1926, putting an end to their silent struggle.
Nonetheless, there were several open challenges to the regent's expanding power.It was came from:
Dejjach Balcha Safo, governor of Sidamo, and
Ras Gugsa Wale, governor of Begemdir and ex-husband of Zewditu, issued an open challenge to Teferi. The conflicts were ended when Dejjach Balcha was removed from his governorship in 1928 and Ras Gugsa was defeated at the battle of Anchim in 1930.
Consolidation of Autocracy
The coronation of Ras Teferi as Nigus in 1928 and Emperor in 1930 marked the beginning of Haile Selassie‟s autocracy.
After gaining virtual control of power, the emperor implemented a series of reforms and adjustments aimed at setting the groundwork for autocratic rule. Such as:
Promulgation of the 1931 constitution. The first written constitution of 1931 established the legal basis for emerging absolutism. The Constitution provided a legal framework for Haile Selassie's emerging autocratic rule. The constitution recognized the emperor's unrestricted rights to:
make appointments and dismiss officials,
administering justice,
declare and end wars, and
grant lands and honors.
The provincial hereditary aristocracy lost a lot of political influence with the 1931 Constitution. With the exception of Tigray, which was permitted to be ruled by descendants of its local hereditary chiefs, the countries other provinces lost their internal autonomy and were replaced by individuals nominated directly by the Emperor.
The formation of a national army was another measure through which the emperor attempted to consolidate his power. i.e:
In 1930, the Belgian officers began training the Imperial Bodyguard.
In 1934, the first officer training school was established at Holeta, west of the capital, by a Swedish military mission. The first batch of officers three year training program was disrupted by the Italian invasion. Rather than career officers, the cadets began to make history as passionate patriots.
3.5 Fascist Italian Aggression and Patriotic Resistance
Despite their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians had never given up their desire to colonize Ethiopia and were waiting for an opportune time to revenge on their defeats.
When Benito Mussolini, the leader of the fascist party, came to power in 1922; he was determined to restore ancient Roman power and glory. To divert attention away from problems he encountered in Europe, he planned a larger military operation in Africa.
Mussolini just needed a pretext to invade Ethiopia after a long period of planning. Ethiopian and Italian forces clashed at Walawal, in the Ogaden, on December 5, 1934, over an ill-defined border between Ethiopia and Italo- Somaliland.
Italians invaded Ethiopia from North and South directions
The Northern Front
The Italian soldiers crossed the Marab River on October 3, 1935, and by November 8, 1935 they had taken control of Mekele.
Emilio de Bono, who was subsequently succeeded by Pietro Badoglio, headed the Italian troops in this direction.
On the northern front, Badoglio headed the war's most brutal phase. With air attacks, his men advanced quickly into Tigrai. Three hundred planes were dispatched to drop the internationally banned poison gas on Ethiopians.
The Southern Front
General Rudolfo Graziani was in charge of the Italian army in the south.
The Ethiopian government's mobilization order was met with a huge response. Ethiopia's counter-offensive, on the other hand, arrived more later than expected. The delay was caused by two factors.
First and foremost, Ethiopia placed its faith in the League of Nations and the international world, hoping for fair justice.
Second, Ethiopians intended to extend Italy's supply line by enabling it to move deeper into the country.
Ethiopian soldiers eventually went out to fight the Italians on two fronts: the northern and southern fronts.
The Northern Front
Ras Kassa Hailu had overall command of the northern front. Under him were:
Ras Mulugeta Yeggezu (minister of war)
Ras Seyoum Mengesha (ruler of Tigray), and
Ras Emeru Haile-Selassie (governor of Gojjam)
Ethiopians fought the Italians in three directions. i.e:
At the Battle of Amba Aradom, the forces of Minister of War Ras Mulugeta Yegezu, fought on the eastern front.
The armies of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyoum Mengesha were in the centre (Temben).
Ras Emeru Haile Selassie commanded an army that battled the Italians in Shire, in the west.
On the western front (Shire), the Ethiopians won a few battles. They were, however, unable to stop Italy's overall advance. Ethiopians were unable to resist the aerial bombardment and poison gas used by the Italians.
The battles of Tembien and Amba Aradom were won by the Italians. Ras Mulugeta Yigezu was killed in the second combat.
Only in the battle of Shire, on the western front, did the Ethiopian army gain a modest victory.
The final battle on the northern front was fought at Maychew, on March 31, 1936. The emperor led the remaining troops and the Imperial bodyguard. The Italians were well fortified because of the delay from the Ethiopian side and thus helped by their air superiority; the Italians achieved victory over the Ethiopians. As a result:
On 2 May 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie, his royal family, and some notable officials left Addis Ababa for Europe/London/ via Djibouti.
On 5 May 1936, Addis Ababa came under the control of the Italian army led by
Marshal Badoglio.
The Southern Front
Ethiopians in Ogaden, Sidamo, and Bale were putting up a strong fight on the southern front. On this side, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Nesibu Zeamanuel, Dejazmach Balcha Safo, and Dejjach (later Ras-bitwadad) Mekonnen Endalkachew commanded Ethiopian soldiers against Marshal Rodolfo Graziani's Italians. Despite this, they were unable to stop the Italian advance. So:
The Italians took control of Harar a few days after Addis Ababa fell, The Italians' success was largely due to their:
greater preparation
superior weapons
a crucial monopoly of airpower, and
the deployment of the banned mustard gas.
The Ethiopians, on the other hand, experienced logistical issues (absence of roads, radio communication and maps). Ethiopia was in the process of transitioning from feudalism to modernity. Ethiopian commanders lost the Adwa-era military courage without replacing it with contemporary military skills.
Following Marshal Badoglio‟s occupation of Addis Ababa, Benito Mussolini declared, “Ethiopia is Italian”. Italian-occupied Ethiopia was officially merged with Eritrea and Somalia into an entirely new territory called Italian East Africa/IEA/, or in its Italian version, Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI).
The Italian colonial Empire called Italian East Africa had six major territorial divisions.
No
Region
Capital
1
Eritrea (including Tigray)
Asmara
2
Amhara (formed out of the old provinces of Begemdir,
Gojjam, Wallo and northern Shewa)
Gondar
3
Addis Ababa (later renamed Shewa);
Addis Ababa
4
Oromo and Sidama (comprising lands to the South and Southwest)
Jimma
5
Eastern Ethiopia (Harar)
Harar
6
Somalia (including Ogaden)
Mogadishu
The viceroy was the senior representative of fascist power at the top of the Italian colonial administrative structure.
Badoglio was Musoloni's first viceroy,
Graziani was the second viceroy soon replaced Badoglio (at the end of May 1936) whose reign was likewise cut short by an assassination attempt on February 19, 1937.
The third viceroy who succeeded Graziani was Amadeo Umberto d'Aosta, Duke of Aosta, a more liberal figure who ruled until Italy's surrender in 1941.
The Patriotic Resistance
Ethiopian resistance fighters, named "Patriots" (locally known as Arbegnoch), began to reassemble in their respective areas under the leadership of local leaders in order to challenge the enemy. The Italians were confronted with a national resistance almost from the beginning. Despite the Italians efforts to divide the patriots, the resistance movement encompassed nearly all areas and ethnic groupings.
The resistance began almost soon after the Battle of Maychew. These Patriots were active throughout the occupation era, making life tough for the Italians, particularly in rural northern, eastern, and central Ethiopia. “ተነስ! አትነሳም ወይ ሀገር ሲወረር ዝም ትላለህ ወይ” ('Stand! Oh rise up; you cannot sit there while the nation is invaded') became the popular slogan at the time. As a result, the country was never effectively occupied.
The resistance is divided into two phases, with the reprisals following the failed assassination attempt on Graziani in February 1937 providing the dividing line.
The first phase was a continuation of the conflict. It was marked by traditional military battles and was mostly headed by upper-class nobles. It was characterized by conventional warfare.
Some of the notable leaders of the first phase of the patriot‟s resistance were:
Ras Emeru Haile-Sellase,
Ras Desta Damtew, the emperor's son-in-law,
The two brothers Abera and Asfawason Kasa.
Dejjach Balcha Safo,
Ras Abebe Aregay, and
Dejjach Feqre-Maryam Yennadu.
Abune Petros, a bishop of Wallo who became a martyr, is said to have been the motivating spirit.
Moges Asgedom and Abreha Deboch, two young Ethiopians, attempted to kill Italian Viceroy Graziani on February 19, 1937. Graziani was seriously wounded while some other officials were killed. As a kind of revenge, Italian forces massacred Ethiopians in the city. The episode is known as the Graziani Massacre or the February Massacre .
Approximately 30,000 Ethiopians were slaughtered in three days.
The Italians primarily targeted Ethiopians with a high level of education.
Mass massacres revealed Fascism's real face and sparked a fresh phase of national opposition to Italian authority.
This event signaled the beginning of the resistance's second phase
The second phase was guerrilla warfare dominated, which was mostly headed by members of the lower nobility.
The nobility and local notables launched the second wave of patriotic resistance. It took on the form of guerilla warfare and was mostly concentrated in rural regions.
It was mainly strong in the regions of Shewa, Gojjam and Begemidir.
Many renowned guerrilla leaders fought the enemy in different battles. Such as:
Haile Mariam Mamo, Abebe Aregay, Geresu Duki, and Bekele Woya in Shewa, and
Belay Zeleke in Gojjam, and
Amoraw Wubineh in Gondar, were some of the popular patriotic leaders.
Ethiopian resistance fighters/patriots/ lacked a well-organized supply and provisioning infrastructure. They:-
relied heavily on individual donations as well as looting enemy possessions.
often used peasant homesteads for shelter and food.
The Ethiopian peasantry provided food and shelter to the combatants. On various occasions, peasants fought with patriots against the Italians. They also provided crucial information to the patriots.
Yewust Arbegnoch ("inner patriots") made a great contribution to the patriotic struggle. These were patriots who lived in towns among the Italians and frequently worked with them. These patriots were:
who passed on vital information to the patriots.
used to provide underground support to patriots battling in the bushes.
their main task was to collect weapons, medicine, food, and intelligence reports to be secretly delivered to fighters.
As Yewust Arbegnoch, Ethiopian women played an important role . Women used to get crucial information from Italians. Some went to the extent of arranging secret killings of Italian authorities.
In addition to underground activities, there were women that led their troops in battles of resistance. Others served as rallying points to soldiers, when their husbands died. Prominent examples of women in the patriotic resistance movement were:
Shewareged Gedle of Addis Alem
Kebedech Seyoum of Shewa
Shewanesh Abera of Lasta
Abebech Cherqos of Gondar and
Lekyelesh Beyan of Jirru.
The patriotic struggle continued often under difficult circumstances. i.e:-
Shortages of arms, food, clothing, and medicines had always been serious challenges to the patriots throughout the period of struggle.
There were personal conflicts among patriotic leaders which even sometimes led to the extent of armed clashes.
The patriots lacked proper coordination. They had no strong uniting political organization. Their slogan was fighting for the Ethiopian flag and monarchy.
Despite the above mentioned weaknesses, the patriotic resistance continued throughout the five years of Italian occupation. It played a great role in the gradual weakening of the fascist forces and enhanced the liberation of Ethiopia.
Yet, the final liberation of Ethiopia was achieved by the combined efforts of internal and external forces which were partly related to the Second World War.
In June 1940, Italy entered World War II on the side of Germany.
Italy‟s action led to British military intervention in the liberation campaign of Ethiopia. Britain believed that military intervention in Africa would protect
her colonial interests. Emperor Haile Selassie, who was in exile in London, requested British military assistance, and a joint Anglo-Ethiopian liberation operation was started in Sudan and Kenya.
In the interior of Ethiopia, patriots joined hands with recently arrived liberation army.
Troops under General William Platt attacked the Italians in Eritrea.
The two British officers, Major General Orde Charles Wingate and Brigadier General Daniel Sandford, led a joint army known as the Gideon Force with Emperor Haile Selassie that entered Gojjam in April 1941.
The British commander Lieutenant General Sir Allan Cunningham entered Ethiopia through British East Africa (Kenya) and his army controlled Addis Ababa on 6 April 1941.
Emperor Haile Selassie I re-entered his capital on 5 May 1941 and officially
hoisted the Ethiopian flag.
UNIT FOUR
SOCIETY AND POLITICS IN THE AGE OF WORLD WARS 1914-1945
The First World War: Causes, Course and the Consequence
The First World War (1914-18), often known as the Great War, was an international conflict that involved most of the nations of Europe along with Russia, the United States, the Middle East, and other regions.
The major/root causes of the First World War
A/ Mutual Defense Alliances
Growing rivalries and Mutual mistrust had led to the creation of several military alliances among the Great Powers as early as the 1870s . This alliance system had been designed to keep peace in Europe but it would instead help push the continent into war.
The Major military alliances during WWI were:
Triple Alliance:
The Triple Alliance (also known as Central Powers) when originally formed in 1882, Comprised Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Italy, however, left it and joined the Triple Entente in 1915.
Triple Entente:
It developed from the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 which was followed by the British and French Entente Cordiale of 1904.
It was transformed into a Triple Entente following the Anglo-Russia Agreement of 1907.
More than twenty countries, including the USA, Japan, the Union of South Africa, Portugal and Rumania joined the Triple Entente also named the Allied Powers.
B/ Imperialism
Another force that helped set the stage for war in Europe was imperialism. The nations of Europe competed fiercely for colonies in Africa and Asia. The quest for colonies sometimes pushed European nations to the brink of war. As European countries continued to compete for overseas empires , their rivalry and mistrust of one another deepened.
C/ Militarism
The rise of a dangerous and troubling European arms race throughout the early 20th century was one of the causes of WWI. i.e:
By 1914, Germany had nearly 100 warships and two million trained soldiers.
Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this period.
Further, in Germany and Russia particularly, the military establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved into war.
D/ Nationalism
Nationalism created tension between France and Germany.
France wanted to avenge its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 to 1871 and
regain its lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine .
Balkan nationalism was another source of tension. They
The struggled to be independent of the Ottoman Turks domination.
Immediate Cause of WWI
Assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the immediate cause of World War I.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary assassinated by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip at Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia which was part of Austria-Hungary on June 28, 1914.
The assassination of Franz Ferdinand suddenly became a source of conflict in the region. Austria-Hungary used the assassination as an excuse to settle its dispute with Serbia. On July 23 Austria-Hungary sent a warlike ultimatum to Serbia.
Serbia accepted most of Austria-Hungary‟s demands but sought international arbitration on some issues. Austria- Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Within a week most of Europe was at war.
Course of WWI
In 1914 the Germans followed a plan devised by Count Alfred von Schlieffen, their Chief of the General Staff.
Schlieffen proposed to attack France through Belgium and occupy Paris within six weeks before turning on Russia to avoid a drawn-out, two-front war. Then turn east against the Russia, a large and backward country which would be slow to mobilize.
Schlieffen also proposed that the Germans should attack the French from the north through Belgium, where the French defense was weak. Hence, in August 1914, Germany invaded France through Belgium.
The Germans' attack was forced back at the Battle of the Marne in September 1914, which halted their advance. After that, both sides dug defensive trenches, and a deadly stalemate started on the Western Front, which lasted for the next four years.
Meanwhile, contrary to the Germans' expectations, the Russians made rapid mobilization. As a result, the Germans transferred part of their army to the Eastern front and were forced to fight a two front war. The war in the east was more mobile than that of the west, which was static.
In the U.S. Public opinion had gradually changed against Germany after 1914.
In January 1917, Germany launched an unrestricted submarine campaign.
Furthermore, it was discovered that the German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, had secretly sent a telegram to the Mexican government that promised to reward Mexico with vast areas of the southwestern United States in return for Mexican support against the Americans. Although President
Woodrow Wilson‟s great desire was for peace, he felt the United States was forced to go to war. The US declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
The consequences of World War I
World War I, in many ways, was a new kind of war. It involved the use of new technologies such as machine guns, airplanes, poisonous gasses, and U-Boats (Submarines).
As many as 8.5 million soldiers and some 13 million civilians died during World War I.
The four imperial dynasties were collapsed. Namely:
The Habsburgs of Austria-Hungary
The Hohenzollerns of Germany
The sultanate of the Ottoman Empire and
The Romanovs of Russia.
The map of Europe changed forever as territories were divided among the victorious Allied powers.
The mass movement of soldiers and refugees helped spread one of the world‟s deadliest influenza pandemics, the Spanish flu of 1918–19, also called the Spanish influenza pandemic.
Discontent with World War I also helped bring about the Russian Revolution of 1917. In this revolution, the Russian Empire was toppled and replaced by a socialist government led by Vladimir Lenin. In northeastern Europe, new states emerged that had formerly been a part of the Russian Empire. Among them were Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania.
In the USA, the war brought women more into the US economy and also helped increase their involvement in politics. The Nineteenth Amendment (Women‟s Right to Vote) was passed in 1920.
It encouraged African Americans to move to northern cities for factory work.
The Treaty of Versailles between Germany and the Allied powers was signed on June 28, 1919, adopting Wilson‟s Fourteen Points, the treaty created a League of Nations.
The League was to be an international association whose goal would be to keep peace among nations.
Although the conference included representatives from many countries, it was dictated by a group known as the “Big Four”: Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of Great Britain, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy.
Russia, in the grip of civil war, was not represented. Neither were Germany and its allies.
The treaty also punished Germany and had severe restrictions placed on its military operations. It placed sole responsibility for the war on Germany‟s shoulders. As a result, Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies. The defeated nations also lost substantial territory. All of Germany‟s territories in Africa and the Pacific were declared mandates or territories to be administered by the League of Nations. Under the peace agreement, the Allies would govern the mandates until they were judged ready for independence .
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