HISTORY SHORT NOTE FOR GRADE NINE 1_9 All UNIT
History short note for grade 9 in 2018
https://t.me/kobo_historiography
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Unit 1:
The Discipline of History and Human
Evolution
1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History
• The term history, derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.”
• History is the study of humans in the past.
• Historians are people who study and write about the human past.
• The study of the past, focusing on human events, societies, and civilizations. It’s an inquiry into the past, seeking to understand what hap-pened, why it happened, and its consequences.
<> Prehistory
• is the study of the distant past.
• was the time before people developed the art of writing and recording started.
• The period before the development of writing, which is esti-mated to have began around 5,500 years ago.
Archaeologists and anthropol-ogists use artifacts and other evidence to study this period.
Prehistory is studied through archaeological evidence, while history relies on written records and other sources.
<> Importance of History:
– Understanding the present by learning from the past.
– Developing critical thinking skills.
– Gaining a sense of identity and understanding national and global is- sues.
◇︎ helps us know about the past, understand the present, and foresee future developments.
◇ understand national and international issues, including democratic principles and nationalism.
◇The develop the necessary skill for collecting and analysing information to reach conclusions.
◇ it helps us live our lives as conscious citizens actively participating in shaping our future.
◇ History teaches us critical skills.
◇︎Studying History helps students to develop essential research skills.
◇ History helps us understand the present better and provides a sense of identity.
1.2 The Discipline of History
1.2.1 Historiography
• Historiography:
◇ It studies how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted.
◇ The world’s oldest written History comes from China.
◇ Archaeologists have discovered records of Chinese History written before 1000 BC.
◇ The study of how historical knowledge is produced and transmitted. It examines the methods, sources, and interpretations used by historians.
• Early Historians: Herodotus and Thucydides (ancient Greek historians) are considered pioneers of organized historical study and writing.
◇Ancient Greek historians, notably Herodotus and Thucydides, introduced the organized study and narration of the past.
◇︎The term’s first use is attributed to Herodotus (c.484-425BC),who is often the“father of history. ” Thucydides wrote critically and accurately.
• Modern Historiography:
Developed in the 19 th century, emphasizing scientific methods, critical analysis, and objectivity.
History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the19thcentury,first in Europe and then other parts of the world.
◇ Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886), the German historian,established Historyas an independent discipline.
◇︎Ranke is considered the “father of modern historiography” for his effort to the scientific study of the past.
• Ethiopian Historiography: Ethiopia has a long tradition of oral history and written chronicles, which have been studied by modern Ethiopian histo-rians. 1960s
◇ Ethiopia had an indigenous tradition of history writing.
◇ It made some changes from the chronicle tradition in the early 20thcentury.
◇ History emerged as an academic discipline in the 1960s.
◇ This decade is vital in the growth of Ethiopian historiography.
1.2.2 Historical Interpretation
◇ What happened in the past is endless.
◇ ,historians select topics or problems they
desire to study.
◇ a systematic and objective study of the past as a field of discipline.
◇ a systematic study because historical study follows established rules, procedures, and standards.
◇ Historians use specific basic methods in writing History.
◇ The study of History also refers to the objective pursuit of truth.
◇ historians are expected to avoid bias though it is difficult in practice.
• Interpretation: The process of analyzing, evaluating, and explaining past events. It’s subjective and influenced by the historian’s perspective.
◇ We base our interpretation on primary or secondary, or both sources.
• Primary Sources: Original materials from the time period being studied (e.g., artifacts, documents, photographs, oral traditions).
• Secondary Sources: Materials that analyze or interpret primary sources (e.g., books, articles, biographies).
1.2.3 Sources of History
• Importance of Sources: Historical knowledge is based on evidence from sources.
• Types of Sources:
A– Primary Sources:
▪︎They are original materials that have direct relations to the events they describe.
Direct evidence from the past, including:
Monuments,tools,ornaments
>, artifacts(coins,fossils,
> inscriptions,weapons,utensils,
> ruins of buildings),written
> materials(manuscriptsor hand written materials,chronicles
> ,diaries,letters,minutes,codes of laws,court records
> administrative files, travel documents), photographs,
> maps, video and audio visual materials.
∗ Artifacts: Objects made or used by people in the past (e.g., tools, pottery, coins).
∗ Written Documents: Letters, diaries, chronicles, official records.∗ Visual Materials: Photographs, paintings, maps, films.
∗ Oral Traditions: Stories passed down through generations by word of mouth.
B– Secondary Sources:
▪︎ they provide us with second-hand or indirect information.
Examples of secondary sources are
articles, books, textbooks, biographies,
oral traditions and published stories or movies about historical events.
▪︎Oral traditions are historical sources transmitted by word of mouth from one generation to the next.
▪︎History can only be written based on data collected from the above mentioned sources.
▪︎whatever the sourceof information,it should be subjected to critical evaluation
before being used as evidence.
▪︎ Primary sources have to be verified for originality and authenticity to avoid forgery.
▪︎ Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions.
▪︎ Oral data should be cross-checked with other sources such as written documents to determine its truth; because it may lose its authenticity due to distortion through time.
Secondary sources
Materials that interpret or analyze primary sources, including:
∗ Books: Historical accounts.
∗ Articles: Scholarly publications.
∗ Biographies: Accounts of the lives of individuals.
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• Critical Evaluation: Historians must carefully evaluate the reliability and authenticity of sources.
1.2.4 Dating in History
• Dating: Determining the precise time of past events.
• Chronology: The arrangement of events in order of time.
<> historians describe the period of eventsby using certain subdivisions or units of time.
• Units of Time:
– Decade: A period of ten years.
– Century: A period of one hundred years.
– Millennium: A period of one thousand years.
▪︎The primary purpose of dating in history is to organise past events according to their sequence of occurrence by using calendars.
<> The two widely used calendars world wide are the Gregorian and Islamic.
A.Gregorian calendar
• time is counted forward and backwards from the time of the birthof Jesus Christ.
•︎The time before the birth of Christ is referred to as BC (BeforeChrist), where as the time after the birth ofJesus Christ is expressed in AD (anno Domini),a Latin term meaning “The Year of the Lord”.
• Ethiopia uses its calendar and periodization.
• The Ethiopian Calendar is seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar.
B.The Islamic Calendar
• The Hijra to count time forwards and backwards.
• The Hijra was the flight of the prophet Mohammed and hisearly followers from the town of Mecca to Medinain 622AD.
• BH stands for the years before the Hijra
• AH refers to the years after the Hijra.
• Calendars: Systems for tracking time (e.g., Gregorian Calendar, Ethiopian Calendar, Islamic Calendar).
• Timeline: A visual representation of events in chronological order.
Historians sometimes usea timeline.
Atime lineis a graphic representation of events in chronological order or periods of history.
▪︎It is a horizontal or a vertical line up of historica l events.
▪︎Historical timeline enables quick visualization and formsaclearidea of the passage of time about events.
<> periodisation in history.
<> history is conventionally divided in to ancient, medieval and modern history.
1.3 The Evolution of Human Beings
• Hominids: The family of primates that includes humans and their extinct ancestors.
• Bipedalism: Walking upright on two legs, a key characteristic of hominids.
• Key Hominid Species:
– Australopithecus afarensis: Famous for the ”Lucy” skeleton found in Ethiopia, dating back to 3.18 million years ago.
– Homo habilis: The ”handy man,” known for tool use, dating back to 2.4 million years ago.
– Homo erectus: ”Upright man,” emerged around 2 million years ago and was the first to use fire and migrate out of Africa.
– Homo sapiens: ”Wise man,” emerged around 300,000 years ago and is the only surviving human species.
• Ethiopia’s Importance: Ethiopia is a key location for the study of human evolution, with many important fossil discoveries.
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1.3.1 Theories of Human Evolution
• Creationist Theory: Belief that humans were created by a supernatural being.
• Evolutionist Theory: Belief that humans evolved from earlier primates through a process of natural selection.
– Charles Darwin: The most influential proponent of the theory of evolution by natural selection.
1.3.2 Africa and Human Evolution
• East Africa: The East African Rift Valley is considered a crucial location for human evolution, with abundant fossil evidence.
• Ethiopia: Ethiopia has played a significant role in human evolution, with discoveries such as ”Lucy” and other important hominid fossils.
> The oldest Australopithecines,discovered in northern Chadin2001,is Sahelian chadensis.
> It is estimated to be between 7 and 6 million years old.
> Fossils of Australopithecus ramidus, aged 4.4 million years, were discovered in the Afar region in Ethiopia in 1994.
> The fossil remains of Australopithecus afarensis, also known as Lucy (Dinkinesh),was found at Hadar in the Afar region in1974.It is estimated to be 3.18
million years old.
> They were first described by an American scientist Donald Johanson and his colleagues.
> Lucy's fossils are the most complete so far found.
> Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal and appeared to have been the ancestor of human beings from among the Australopithecines.
> Remains of Australopithecus africanus,aged 2.5 million years,were discoveredin1924at Taung,South Africa.
>The East African RiftValley seems to have been the home of human evolution due to its rich archaeological evidence.
> Fossils of Homo habilis were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Lake Turkana in Kenya.
1.4 The Stone Age
• Stone Age:
A broad period of human pre history characterized by the use of stone tools.
• Stages of the Stone Age:
The Stone Age is divided into three periods:
A.Paleolithic Age
B. Mesolithic Age,
C.Neolithic Age.
A– Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age):
▪︎ Paleolithic is Greek for “old stone,” The Paleolithic Age is also called the Old Stone Age.
The longest period of the Stone Age, lasting from about 2.6 million years ago to 10,000 BC.
▪︎The Paleolithic Age was the longest of the stone ages that lasted until about 11,000 years ago (around 9,000BC)
∗ Key Developments:
> First crude stone tools
> Early stone tool use,
> Hand-Axe loved in cave
> hunting and gathering, discovery of fire,
> development of language.
B– Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age):
A transitional period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages, lasting from about 10,000 BC to 8,000 BC.
▪︎It lasted from 9000BC to 8000BC years ago.
▪︎ Improved stone tools, adaptation to chang-ing environments.
▪︎Stone tools were slightly improved and more adaptable to different uses during this age.
C– Neolithic Age (New Stone Age):
Began around 8,000 BC and lasted until about 4,000 BC.
The Neolithic Revolution (agricultural rev-olution), the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture, the development of settlements, the domestication of plants and ani-mals, the invention of new tools.
• Then, agriculture began and among the domesticated plants were
teff, dagussa, nug and enset.
• People also started making and using pottery.
• Civilization were laid during this age.
• human beings began to produce food.
• a sedentary way of life and a complex social organisation.
• Stone houses were built.
• Religious places and granaries we reconstructed.
• New and better tools like the hoe, the yoke,
▪︎ The earliest evidence of the Neolithic comes from the Middle East some 11,000 years ago.
▪︎The major archaeological sites are found in Palestine,Mesopotamia,the Nile valley in Egypt,
~ Tropical Africa,the Yangtze Kiang valley in China,the Indus valley in India,and parts of the Americas.
▪︎ the Neolithic age took place in parts of Ethiopia about 7000 years ago.
• There are several archaeological sites in Ethiopia that are representative of the Neolithic age.
~ found in Aksum, Lalibela, and near Chercher in Hararghe and Metehara.
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1.5 The Emergence of States
• State: A politically organized community living in a defined territory with a government and sovereignty.
• Key Features of a State:
– Population: A group of people living in the state.
– Territory: A defined area of land.
– Government: An organized system of rule.
– Sovereignty: The supreme power to govern within its territory.
– Recognition: Recognition by other states as a legitimate entity.
• Theories of State Formation:
– Theocratic Theory: States emerged as a result of religious authority.
– Agricultural Theory: States emerged as a result of the development of agriculture and the accumulation of surplus food.
– Trade Theory: States emerged as a result of the growth of trade and the need for control over trade routes.
– Force Theory: States emerged as a result of conquest and warfare.
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Unit TWO
Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500 AD
2.1 Ancient Civilizations of Africa
2.1.1 Ancient Egypt
• Nile Valley Civilization: Emerged in the Nile Valley around 3000 BC.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, supported by the fertile soil of the Nile River.
• Political System: Ruled by pharaohs, who were considered both kings and gods.
• Social Hierarchy:
A stratified society with a ruling elite and a large peasant class.
• Religion:
Polytheistic, with a complex system of gods and goddesses.
• Belief in the Afterlife: Elaborate burial practices, including mummifica-tion, to prepare for the afterlife.
• Major Achievements:
– Architecture: Pyramids, temples, and other monumental structures.
– Writing: Hieroglyphics, a system of writing using symbols.
– Mathematics and Astronomy: Advanced knowledge of these fields.
– Medicine: Developed a sophisticated system of medicine.
2.1.2 Nubia
• Nile Valley Kingdom: Located along the Nile River in present-day Sudan.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, pastoralism, and trade.
• Political System: Ruled by kings and queens, considered divine.
• Religion: Polytheistic, influenced by Egyptian religion.
• Metal Technology: Known for its advanced metalworking, particularly iron production.
• Relationship with Egypt: Often interacted with Egypt, sometimes as conquerors and sometimes as subjects.
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2.2 Civilizations in Asia
2.2.1 Mesopotamia
• River Valley Civilization: Emerged between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers around 3500 BC.
• City-States: Developed independent city-states, each ruled by a king.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, supported by irrigation systems.
• Religion: Polytheistic, with worship of many gods.
• Major Achievements:
– Architecture: Ziggurats, stepped pyramids, temples.
– Writing: Cuneiform, a system of writing using wedge-shaped marks.
– Mathematics and Astronomy: Developed advanced systems of math- ematics and astronomy.
– Inventions: The wheel, the plow, and bronze technology.
2.2.2 Persia
• Persian Empire: Founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 BC, became one of the largest empires in history.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and mining.
• Political System: A centralized monarchy with a king (shah) as the supreme ruler.
• Religion: Zoroastrianism, a monotheistic religion founded by the prophet Zoroaster.
• Major Achievements: – Government and Law: Developed a sophisticated system of govern-ment and law.
– Infrastructure: Built roads and a postal service.
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2.2.3 India
• Indus Valley Civilization: Emerged in the Indus Valley around 2500 BC.
• Urban Planning: Developed cities with well-planned infrastructure, in- cluding drainage systems and public spaces.
• People had their counting, measuring, weighing and writing system.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and crafts.
• They dug ditches and canals around the cities to irrigate their farms.
• The indus artisans used copper and bronze to make tools, mirrors, pots, and pans and crafted gold ornaments.
• Religion: A complex system of beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans.
• Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a reform movement. It spread outside of India to South East Asia, China, and Japan
• Social Hierarchy: A stratified society with a caste system.
Brahmins_ priestly, academic class
kshatriyas,_Rulers,administrator, warrior
vaishyas,_artisans, tradesmen,farmers, merchants
shudras_Manual laborers
2.2.4 China
• Yellow River Civilization: Emerged in the Yellow River Valley around 3000 BC.
In the Valley of Hwang Ho.
north,Central and Southern parts Expanded.
• The first dynasty in China was called the Shang dynasty ( 1700-1122BC.).
• Dynastic Cycles: A cyclical pattern of rule in China, with dynasties rising and falling.chon dynasty overthrew the shang dynasty established own rule over China until 256 BC.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and crafts.
• Religion and Philosophy: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism had sig-nificant influences on Chinese culture.
• Major Achievements:
• the creation of bronze vessels, war chariots, and a writing system.
– Writing: Logographic writing system using symbols to represent words.
– Inventions: Paper, gunpowder, printing, the compass, and silk pro-duction.
– Architecture: The Great Wall of China.
2.3 Ancient Civilizations of Latin America
2.3.ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA
2.3.1 Maya
• Mesoamerican Civilization: Flourished in present-day Mexico and Cen- tral America between 250 and 900 AD.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and crafts.
• Political System: A complex system of city-states, sometimes allied and sometimes in conflict.
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• Religion: Polytheistic, with a belief in human sacrifice.
• Major Achievements:
– Architecture: Pyramids, temples, and palaces.
– Writing: A hieroglyphic writing system.
– Mathematics and Astronomy: Developed an advanced calendar system and made significant contributions to astronomy.
2.3.2 Inca
• South American Empire: Expanded throughout the Andes Mountains of South America from 1438 onwards.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and mining.
• Political System: A centralized empire ruled by an emperor (Sapa Inca).
• Religion: Polytheistic, with a focus on ancestor worship.
• Major Achievements:
– Architecture: Impressive stonework and temples.
– Engineering: Built a network of roads and irrigation systems.
– Crafts: Skilled artisans produced textiles, pottery, and gold and silver ornaments.
2.3.3 Aztecs
• Mesoamerican Empire: Dominated much of central Mexico in the 15th and 16th centuries.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and tribute collection.
• Political System: A centralized empire ruled by an emperor.
• Religion: Polytheistic, with a focus on human sacrifice.
• Major Achievements:
– Architecture: Pyramids, temples, and palaces.
– Writing: A pictographic writing system.
– Calendar System: Developed a complex calendar system.
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2.4 Civilizations in Europe
2.4.1 Ancient Greek Civilization
• City-States: Ancient Greek civilization was organized into independent city-states (poleis).
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and crafts.
• Political Systems: Varied from democracy in Athens to oligarchy and monarchy in other city-states.
• Religion: Polytheistic, with a complex pantheon of gods and goddesses.
• Major Achievements:
– Philosophy: Developed a rich philosophical tradition with thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
– Literature and Drama: Wrote great works of literature and devel-oped theater.
– Architecture: Created stunning temples and other structures (e.g., the Parthenon).
– Sculpture: Produced highly detailed and realistic sculptures.
– Science and Medicine: Made important contributions to science, mathematics, and medicine, including the work of Hippocrates.
– Democracy: Developed the concept of democracy, although it was initially limited to a small group of citizens.
2.4.2 Ancient Roman Civilization
• Roman Republic: Established in 509 BC, ruled by elected officials (con-suls) and a Senate.
• Roman Empire: Established in 27 BC under Augustus, ruled by emperors.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and mining.
• Political System: Initially a republic, later an empire ruled by emperors.
• Religion: Initially polytheistic, later adopted Christianity.
• Major Achievements:
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– Law: Developed a comprehensive system of law that influenced later legal systems.
– Architecture: Built roads, aqueducts, bridges, temples, and the Colos- seum.
– Military: Conquered a vast territory, stretching from Britain to North Africa.
– Engineering: Developed advanced engineering techniques.
– Literature: Produced important works of literature in Latin.
2.5 Rise and Spread of Christianity
• Origins: Arose in Palestine in the first century AD based on the teachings of Jesus Christ.
• Early Spread: Grew rapidly throughout the Roman Empire, despite per-secution.
• Constantine’s Role: Emperor Constantine embraced Christianity and made it the favored religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century.
• Theodosius’s Decree: Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the of-ficial religion of the Roman Empire in 392 AD.
• Division of the Church: The Church split into Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy in 1054.
• Reformation: A 16th-century movement that led to the emergence of Protestantism, further dividing Western Christianity.
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Unit 3:
Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the
Horn to the end of 13th C.
3.1 Languages, Religions, and Peoples of Ethiopia and the
Horn
• Linguistic Diversity: The Horn of Africa is home to a wide range of languages.
• Language Families:
– Afro-Asiatic Superfamily:
∗ Cushitic Family: Spoken by the largest group in Ethiopia, in-cluding Oromo, Somali, Afar, and other groups.
∗ Semitic Family: Spoken by groups in northern Ethiopia, includ-ing Amharic, Tigrinya, and Ge’ez (an ancient liturgical language).∗ Omotic Family: Spoken by groups in southwestern Ethiopia, in-cluding Wolaita, Gamo, and others.
– Nilo-Saharan Superfamily:
∗ Chari-Nile Family: Spoken by groups in western and southern Ethiopia, including Nuer, Anywaa, and others.
∗ Koman Family: Spoken by groups in western Ethiopia, including Gumuz, Koma, and others.
3.2 Pre-Aksumite States and their Geographical Setting
• Pre-Aksumite Period: The period before the emergence of the Aksumite Kingdom (first century AD).
• Important Pre-Aksumite States:
– Punt: A mysterious kingdom in the Horn of Africa, known for its trade with Ancient Egypt.
– Yeha: An ancient city in northern Ethiopia, known for its stone mon- uments and temples.
– Hawlti-Melazo: Another ancient city in northern Ethiopia, with in- scribed stone tablets.
– Damat: A state in northern Ethiopia, known for its trade with South Arabia.
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3.3 The Aksumite Kingdom • Aksumite Kingdom: A major kingdom in the Horn of Africa that flour- ished from the first century AD to the seventh century AD.
• Capital: Aksum, located in northern Ethiopia.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and mining.
• Political System: Ruled by powerful kings, with a strong centralized gov-ernment.
• Religion: Initially indigenous beliefs, later converted to Christianity.
• Major Achievements:
– Architecture: Monolithic stelae (tall stone obelisks), temples, and other monumental structures.
– Writing: Developed the Ge’ez script, which is still used in Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity.
– Trade: Controlled important trade routes in the Red Sea region.
– Coinage: Minted their own coins.
– Shipbuilding: Developed shipbuilding technology in the port of Adulis.
• Decline: The Aksumite Kingdom declined due to factors including:
– Loss of Trade: Arab control of the Red Sea and the destruction of Adulis.
– Internal Conflicts: Rebels and political unrest.– External Pressure: Invasions from South Arabia.
3.4 The Zagwe Dynasty
• Zagwe Dynasty: A dynasty of Agaw rulers who replaced the Aksumite dynasty in the 12 th century.
• Capital: Roha (later called Lalibela) in Lasta, northern Ethiopia.
• Economic Base: Agriculture and trade.
• Religion: Christianity.
• Major Achievements:
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– Rock-Hewn Churches of Lalibela: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, showcasing remarkable architectural achievements.
• Decline: The Zagwe dynasty was overthrown by Yekuno Amlak in 1270.
3.5 The Sultanate of Shewa • Sultanate of Shewa: A Muslim sultanate that emerged in eastern Ethiopia in 896 AD.
• Dynasties:
– Makhzumite Dynasty: The founding dynasty of the Sultanate of Shewa.
– Walsama Dynasty: Replaced the Makhzumite dynasty and estab-lished the Sultanate of Ifat.
• Economic Base: Trade, particularly through the Zeila port.
• Relationship with the Christian Kingdom: Often in conflict over ter-ritory and trade.
• Decline: The Sultanate of Shewa was gradually weakened and eventually destroyed.
3.6 The Aksumite Kingdom (Cont.) and its Legacy • Aksum’s Continued Influence: The Aksumite Kingdom’s influence and traditions continued to shape Ethiopia for centuries.
• Expansion of Christianity: Christianity became the dominant religion, with the establishment of churches and monasteries.
• Political Legacy: The Aksumite system of governance and its claim to de-scent from King Solomon had a lasting impact on Ethiopian political culture.
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Unit 4:
The Middle Ages and Early Modern World,c. 500 to 1750s
The Middle Ages and Early Modern World,c. 500 to 1750s
4.1 The Middle Ages in Europe
4.1.1 The Dark Ages
• The Dark Ages: A period of decline in Western Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD).
• Factors Contributing to Decline:
– Invasions: Invasions by Germanic tribes (e.g., Franks, Anglo-Saxons), Huns, and Magyars.
– Political Instability: Breakdown of centralized authority and the rise of independent kingdoms.
– Economic Decline: Decline in trade and agriculture.
• Key Developments:
– Feudalism: A system of land tenure and social organization based on a hierarchy of lords and vassals.
– Rise of the Church: The Roman Catholic Church became a major force in Europe, providing religious, social, and cultural leadership.
4.1.2 Feudal Society
• Feudalism: A hierarchical system of social and political organization based on land ownership and loyalty.
• Key Elements of Feudalism:
– Lords: Nobles who owned land (fiefs).
– Vassals: Lords who held fiefs from a higher lord in exchange for loyalty and military service.
– Peasants: The working class, who lived and worked on the manors (estates) of lords.
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– Knights: Warriors who provided military service to lords.
• Manor: The basic unit of feudalism, consisting of a lord’s estate and the peasants who worked on it.
• The Role of the Church: The Roman Catholic Church held significant power and influence in medieval Europe, providing religious and educational leadership.
4.1.3 The Byzantine Empire
• Byzantine Empire: The Eastern Roman Empire, centered in Constantino-ple (modern Istanbul), which survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
• Culture and Religion: Byzantine culture was influenced by both Roman and Greek traditions, and the Eastern Orthodox Church became the domi-nant religion.
• Political System: An autocratic empire ruled by emperors.
• Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and crafts.
• Major Achievements:
– Architecture: Byzantine architecture, known for its use of domes, mosaics, and intricate designs.
– Art: Byzantine art, characterized by its religious themes and its dis-tinctive style.
– Law: Byzantine law, which influenced legal systems throughout Eu-rope.
• Decline: The Byzantine Empire faced challenges from invaders, internal conflicts, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire. It fell in 1453.
4.2 The Middle Ages in Asia
4.2.1 The Rise and Expansion of Islam
• Origins: Arose in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century AD with the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.
• Key Beliefs: Islam is a monotheistic religion that emphasizes submission to the will of God (Allah).
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• Expansion: The Islamic faith spread rapidly through conquest and trade, establishing a vast empire from Spain in the west to Central Asia in the east.
• Major Caliphates:
– Umayyad Caliphate: (661-750 AD)
– Abbasid Caliphate: (750-1258 AD)
4.2.2 The Expansion of the Ottoman Empire
• Ottoman Empire: A powerful empire founded by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th century, centered in Anatolia (present-day Turkey).
• Expansion: Conquered much of the eastern Mediterranean, North Africa, and the Balkans.
• Political System: A centralized monarchy ruled by sultans.
• Religion: Islam.
• Military Strength: The Ottomans had a highly trained military force, including the Janissaries.
• Trade: Controlled important trade routes between Europe and Asia.
• Major Achievements:
– Conquest of Constantinople: Captured Constantinople (modern Is-tanbul) in 1453, marking a turning point in European history.
– Arts and Culture: Developed a rich culture and architecture.
4.2.3 Dynastic Cycle in China
• Dynastic Cycle: A pattern of rule in China, with dynasties rising and falling, often attributed to the ”Mandate of Heaven.”
• Mandate of Heaven: A belief that the right to rule was granted by Heaven to a just and virtuous ruler.
• Key Dynasties: Qin, Han, Tang, Song, Ming, Qing.
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thiopia
4.3 Development of Early Capitalism
• Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production, free markets, and competition.
• Key Features of Capitalism:
– Private Property: Individuals own and control the means of produc-tion.
– Free Markets: Prices are determined by supply and demand.
– Competition: Businesses compete with each other for customers and profits.
– Capital Accumulation: Investment in production to increase profits.– Wage Labor: Workers are paid for their labor.
• Emergence of Capitalism: Capitalism began to develop in Europe during the late Middle Ages, with the growth of trade, cities, and merchant classes.
• Mercantilism: An economic policy that emphasized national wealth through the accumulation of gold and silver, trade, and government intervention.
• Laissez-Faire Economics: An economic philosophy that advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy.
• Industrial Revolution: The rapid development of new technologies and manufacturing processes that fueled the growth of capitalism in the 18th and 19th centuries.
4.4 The Age of Explorations and Discoveries
• Age of Exploration: A period of European exploration and discovery that began in the 15th century and continued into the 17th century.
• Key Motives for Exploration:
– Trade: Seeking new trade routes to Asia and the Far East.
– Wealth: Desire for gold, spices, and other valuable commodities.
.– Religion: Spreading Christianity and challenging the Ottoman Em-pire’s control of trade routes.
– Glory: National prestige and ambition.
• Key Explorers:
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– Vasco da Gama: Portuguese explorer who reached India in 1498, opening a new sea route to Asia.
– Christopher Columbus: Italian explorer who reached the Americas in 1492.
– Ferdinand Magellan: Portuguese explorer who circumnavigated the globe between 1519 and 1522.
• Consequences of Exploration:
– Colonialism: European powers established colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
– Global Trade: The development of global trade networks.
– Cultural Exchange: The exchange of ideas, goods, and diseases be- tween Europe and the rest of the world.
4.5 The Renaissance
• The Renaissance: A period of cultural, artistic, and intellectual rebirth in Europe, beginning in Italy in the 14th century and lasting until the 17th century.
• Key Characteristics:
– Humanism: A focus on human potential and achievements.
– Revival of Classical Learning: Interest in the art, literature, and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome.
– Scientific Inquiry: Increased emphasis on observation, experimenta- tion, and reason.
– Artistic Innovation: New styles of art, literature, and architecture emerged.
– Individualism: Emphasis on the importance of the individual.
• Key Figures:
– Leonardo da Vinci: A painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, and sci- entist.
– Michelangelo: A painter, sculptor, architect, and poet.
– Raphael: A painter.
– William Shakespeare: A playwright and poet.
– Nicolaus Copernicus: An astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system.
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4.6 The Reformation
• The Reformation: A 16th-century religious movement that challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the emergence of Protestantism.
• Causes:
– Corruption in the Church: The Church had become corrupt, with abuses of power, wealth, and indulgence.
– New Ideas: The Renaissance and the growth of humanism challenged the Church’s authority.
– Printing Press: The invention of the printing press allowed for the widespread distribution of religious ideas.
• Key Figures:
– Martin Luther: A German monk who challenged the Catholic Church’s teachings and practices, leading to the Protestant Reformation.
– John Calvin: A French theologian who emphasized predestination and the authority of the Bible.
– Henry VIII: King of England, who broke with the Catholic Church and established the Church of England.
• Consequences:
– Religious Wars: The Reformation led to religious wars throughout Europe.
– Rise of Protestantism: The establishment of new Protestant denom- inations.
– Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church’s response to the Ref- ormation, with reforms aimed at stemming the loss of members.
4.7 The Industrial Revolution
• The Industrial Revolution: A period of rapid technological and economic change in Europe and the United States, beginning in the late 18th century and lasting until the 19th century.
• Key Characteristics:
– Mechanization: The use of machines to replace manual labor.
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– New Power Sources: The development of steam power and later electricity.
– Factory System: The concentration of manufacturing in factories.
– Growth of Cities: Mass migration of people from rural areas to urban centers for work.
• Key Inventions:
– Steam Engine: Revolutionized transportation and manufacturing.
– Spinning Jenny and Power Loom: Improved textile production.
– Railways: Facilitated transportation and trade.
• Consequences:
– Economic Growth: The Industrial Revolution led to unprecedented economic growth and wealth creation.
– Social Change: The rise of new social classes, including the industrial working class (proletariat) and the industrial capitalists (bourgeoisie).
– Urbanization: Rapid growth of cities, leading to overcrowding, poverty, and social problems.
– Environmental Degradation: Pollution from factories and indus- tries.
– Spread of Capitalism: The Industrial Revolution contributed to the spread of capitalism as an economic system.
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Unit 5:
Peoples and States of Africa to 1500
5.1 Languages and Peoples of Africa • Linguistic Diversity: Africa is home to a vast diversity of languages, re- flecting its rich cultural heritage.
• Language Families:
– Afro-Asiatic Superfamily: A major language family found in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara.
– Niger-Congo Superfamily: The largest language family in Africa, covering much of Sub-Saharan Africa.
– Nilo-Saharan Superfamily: Found in parts of East and Central Africa.
– Khoisan Superfamily: Spoken by the San and Khoikhoi peoples in southern Africa.
5.2 States in North Africa • Mamluk Egypt: A sultanate that ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1517, founded by Mamluks (Turkic slave soldiers).
– Economic Base: Agriculture, trade, and crafts.
– Political System: A sultanate ruled by Mamluk sultans.
– Expansion: Expanded into Palestine, Syria, and parts of the Middle East.
– Relationship with Ethiopia: Often in conflict with Ethiopia.
• The Funj Kingdom: A sultanate that emerged in present-day Sudan in 1504.
– Economic Base: Agriculture, pastoralism, and trade.
– Political System: A sultanate ruled by Funj sultans.
– Relationship with Ethiopia: Often in conflict with Ethiopia over trade routes.
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5.3 Spread of Islam and its Impact in West Africa
• Islam in West Africa: Islam spread to West Africa through trade and conquest, starting in the 7th century AD.
• Trans-Saharan Trade: The Trans-Saharan trade route connected North Africa with West Africa and facilitated the spread of Islam.
• Impact of Islam:
– Economic Growth: Islam promoted trade and economic develop- ment.
– Political Change: Islam played a role in the rise of powerful empires in West Africa, such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.
– Cultural Influence: Islam influenced West African art, architecture, law, and social customs.
5.4 States in Western Africa
• Ghana (Ancient Ghana): A powerful empire in West Africa, founded by the Soninke people in the 4th century AD, and reached its height around 1000 AD.
– Economic Base: Gold mining and the Trans-Saharan trade.
– Decline: Overthrown by the Almoravids in 1076.
• Mali: An empire that emerged in West Africa after the fall of Ghana, founded by the Mandinka people in the 13th century.
– Economic Base: Gold, salt, and the Trans-Saharan trade.
– Key Ruler: Mansa Musa (1312-1337), known for his pilgrimage to Mecca.
– Decline: Weakened by internal divisions and external attacks.
• Songhai: An empire that emerged in West Africa after the fall of Mali, founded by the Songhai people in the 14th century.
– Economic Base: Gold, salt, and the Trans-Saharan trade.
– Key Ruler: Askia Muhammad (1493-1528).
– Decline: Conquered by the Moroccan army in 1591.
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• Kanem-Bornu:
A powerful kingdom in the Sahel region of Africa, known for its trade and military strength.
• Hausa City-States:
A group of city-states in present-day Nigeria, known for their trade and craftsmanship.
5.5 Equatorial, Central, and Eastern Africa • The Kingdom of Kongo: Located in present-day Angola and the Demo- cratic Republic of the Congo, founded by the Kongo people in the late 14th century.
– Economic Base: Agriculture and trade.
– Political System: A centralized kingdom ruled by a king (Manikongo).– Relationship with Portugal: Contact with the Portuguese began in the late 15th century, leading to conversion to Christianity and colo-nization.
• Swahili City-States: A series of city-states located along the Indian Ocean coast of East Africa.
– Culture: A blend of Bantu and Arab influences.
– Language: Swahili, a Bantu language with Arabic influences.
– Economic Base: Trade, particularly in gold, ivory, and slaves.– Political System: Ruled by Muslim elites.
– Relationship with Portugal: The Portuguese established trading posts in East Africa, leading to conflict and competition with Muslim traders.
5.6 Southern Africa
• Great Zimbabwe: A medieval African city in present-day Zimbabwe, known for its impressive stone walls and towers.
– Founders: Shona people.
– Economic Base: Agriculture, cattle herding, and gold mining.– Trade: Traded with Swahili city-states along the Indian Ocean coast.– Decline: Conquered by the Portuguese in the 16th century.
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• The Khoi-Khoi:
A nomadic people of southern Africa, known for their pastoralism.
– Relationship with European Settlers: Conflicts with Dutch set- tlers led to their displacement from their lands.
• The San: A hunter-gatherer people of southern Africa.
– Relationship with European Settlers: Displaced by Dutch settlers.
5.7 Africa’s Intra and Inter-continental Relations
• Intra-continental Relations: Interactions between different parts of Africa, often through trade and cultural exchange.
• Inter-continental Relations: Interactions between Africa and other con-tinents.
• Trans-Saharan Trade: A major trade route connecting North Africa with West Africa.
• Early Contacts with Europeans: Portuguese explorers and traders reached the coasts of Africa in the 15th century.
5.8 Trans-Saharan Trade
• Trans-Saharan Trade: A vital trade route that connected North Africa with West Africa, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas.
• Key Trade Items: Gold, salt, slaves, ivory, textiles.
• Impact:
– Economic Development: Contributed to the growth of empires and cities in West Africa.
– Cultural Exchange: Promoted the spread of Islam and other cultural influences.
5.9 Early Contacts with the Outside World
• Early Contacts: Africa had interactions with the outside world since an-cient times, through trade and cultural exchange.
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• European Exploration: The Age of Exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries led to increased contact with Europe.
• The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: The trade in enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas.
Unit 6:
Africa and the Outside World 1500-1880s
6.1 Contact with the Outside World • Portuguese Exploration: Portugal was a leading power in the Age of Exploration, reaching the coasts of Africa in the 15th century.
• Motives:
– Trade: Seeking new trade routes to Asia and the Far East.
– Wealth: Desire for gold, spices, and other valuable commodities.– Religion: Spreading Christianity and challenging the Ottoman Em- pire’s control of trade routes.
– Glory: National prestige and ambition.
• Early Portuguese Settlements:
– Ceuta (Morocco): Conquered in 1415, marking the beginning of Por- tuguese expansion in Africa.
– Cape Bajador (Morocco): Reached in 1432.
– Cape Blanc (Morocco): Reached in 1441.– Sierra Leone: Reached in 1460.
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– Elmina Castle (Ghana): Built in 1482 as a trading post.
• Impact:
– Trade: The Portuguese established trade routes and trading posts, primarily focused on gold and slaves.
– Introduction of New Crops: Introduced new crops, such as maize and cassava, to Africa.
– Competition with Other European Powers: The Dutch, English, and French began to compete for trade and influence in Africa.
6.2 Slavery
• Slavery: The practice of owning and controlling another person as property.
• Historical Prevalence: Slavery has existed in various forms throughout history in Africa, Europe, and Asia.
• Trans-Saharan Slave Trade: A long-standing trade route across the Sa-hara Desert, where enslaved Africans were transported to North Africa and the Middle East.
• The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: The trade in enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, which began in the 15th century and lasted until the 19th century.
– Triangular Trade: A three-way trade network connecting Africa, Eu- rope, and the Americas.
– Causes:
∗ Labor Demand in the Americas: European colonists needed labor for plantations and mines.
∗ European Expansion: European powers sought to establish colonies and control trade.
∗ Internal African Conflicts: Slaves were often acquired through warfare and raids.
– Consequences for Africa:
∗ Depopulation: The transatlantic slave trade caused a significant loss of population in Africa.
∗ Economic Disruption: Disrupted traditional economies and un-dermined agricultural development.
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∗ Political Instability: Fueled warfare and conflict.
∗ Social and Cultural Disruptions: Loss of family structures, cultural traditions, and identity.
– Consequences for the Americas:
∗ Development of Plantations: The slave trade fueled the devel-opment of large plantations in the Americas.
∗ Economic Growth: Contributed to the economic growth of Eu-ropean colonial powers.
6.3 The “Legitimate” Trade
• The “Legitimate” Trade: Trade in commodities between Africa and Eu-ropean merchants, which emerged after the abolition of the slave trade in the 19th century.
• Key Commodities: Palm oil, rubber, cotton, cocoa, gum Arabic, and other raw materials.
• Impact:
– Continued Exploitation: African resources were still exploited, but in the form of raw materials rather than enslaved people.
– Colonialism: The ”legitimate” trade contributed to the growth of colonialism in Africa, as European powers sought to control resources and markets.
6.4 The White Settlement in South Africa
• Dutch Settlement: The Dutch East India Company established a trading post at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652.
• Boer Settlement: Dutch settlers, known as Boers, began migrating inland in the 17th century.
• Conflicts with Indigenous Peoples: The Boers clashed with the Khoikhoi and the San peoples, leading to dispossession and displacement.
• Great Trek: A movement of Boers northward from the Cape Colony in the 1830s and 1840s to escape British rule and secure their own territory.
• British Rule: The British took control of the Cape Colony in 1795, leading to further conflict with the Boers.
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6.5 European Explorers and Missionaries
• European Exploration: European explorers travelled to Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries, driven by motives of:
– Scientific Inquiry: To map the continent, study its geography and peoples.
– Adventure: To explore unknown lands.
– Trade: To find new markets and resources.
• Christian Missions: European missionaries followed explorers, seeking to convert African people to Christianity.
• Impact:
– Colonial Expansion: European explorers and missionaries often paved the way for colonialism.
– Cultural Change: Introduction of Christianity and other European ideas into Africa.
– Conflicts with Indigenous Cultures: Missionaries often clashed with traditional African beliefs and practices.
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Unit 7:
States, Principalities, Population Move-
ments, and Interactions in Ethiopia, 13th to Mid-
16th C.
7.1 The “Solomonic” Dynasty and the Christian Kingdom, 13th-16th C
• The “Solomonic” Dynasty: A dynasty that claimed descent from King Solomon of Israel and the Queen of Sheba, established in 1270 AD by Yekuno Amlak.
• The Legend of Menelik I: The dynasty claimed to be descended from Menelik I, the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. This legend helped legitimize their rule.
• Expansion of the Christian Kingdom: The “Solomonic” dynasty ex-panded its territory southward and eastward, incorporating new regions into the Christian kingdom.
• Key Features of the Christian Kingdom:
– Centralized Authority: The “Solomonic” dynasty sought to estab- lish a strong centralized state.
– Gult System: A feudal system where state officials were granted the right to collect tribute from peasants in exchange for their service.
– Trade: The Christian Kingdom was interested in controlling important trade routes, particularly the Zeila route.
– Religion: Christianity was the dominant religion.
– Foreign Relations: The Christian kingdom maintained relations with Egypt, the Middle East, Portugal, and Spain.
• Challenges:
– Succession Disputes: Frequent conflicts between royal family mem- bers for the throne.
– Regional Powers: Independent lords and rulers in different regions challenged the kingdom’s authority.
– Muslim Sultanates: Conflict with Muslim sultanates, particularly Adal, over trade and territory.
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7.2 The Muslim Principalities
• Muslim Sultanates: Several Muslim sultanates emerged along trade routes in eastern and southeastern Ethiopia, particularly along the Zeila route.
• Key Sultanates:
– Ifat: Founded in 1285, became a powerful rival of the Christian king- dom.
– Adal: Founded in 1367, became the most powerful Muslim state in the region, known for its resistance to the Christian kingdom.
• Political and Economic Influences:
– Trade: The sultanates were involved in lucrative trade, especially through the Zeila port.
– Conflict with the Christian Kingdom: Frequent wars and compe- tition for control of trade routes and territory.
7.3 Relationship Between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal, 1520s-1559
• Conflict: Intense conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, primarily over trade and territory.
• Key Figures:
– Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (“Gragn”): A charismatic Muslim leader who led the Adal Sultanate in its war against the Chris-tian kingdom.
– Lebne Dengel: The Ethiopian emperor who faced Imam Ahmed’s invasion.
– Gelawdewos: Emperor of Ethiopia who defeated Imam Ahmed and consolidated the Christian kingdom.
• Major Battles:
– Battle of Shimbra Kure (1529): A decisive victory for Imam Ahmed, leading to the conquest of much of the Christian kingdom.
– Battle of Woyna Dega (1543): A decisive victory for Gelawdewos, resulting in the death of Imam Ahmed and the decline of Adal.
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• International Intervention:
– Ottoman Empire: Supported Imam Ahmed, seeking to expand its influence in the region.
– Portugal: Sent military aid to the Christian kingdom, hoping to gain access to trade routes in the Red Sea.
• Consequences:
– Weakening of Both States: The war weakened both the Christian kingdom and the Adal Sultanate.
– Expansion of Islam: Islam gained new converts in parts of the Ethiopian highlands.
– Cultural Intermixing: The war led to increased interaction and cul- tural exchange between Christian and Muslim communities.
7.4 Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of Southern
and Central States in Ethiopia
• Independent States and Peoples: Several independent states and com-munities flourished in southern and central Ethiopia, often maintaining their own political and social structures.
• Key States and Peoples:
– Omotic States:
∗ Kafa: Known for its coffee production.
∗ Yem: Located in the Gibe region.
∗ Wolaita: Known for its enset cultivation.
∗ Gamo: Known for its unique political organization.∗ Gofa: Located in southwestern Ethiopia.
∗ Dawuro: Known for its agricultural practices.∗ Konta: Located in southwestern Ethiopia.
– Cushitic States:
∗ Kambata: Known for its strong traditional administration.∗ Hadiya: Known for its distinct cultural traditions.
∗ Sidama: Known for its luwa age-grade system.∗ Gedeo: Known for its ballee system of governance.
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∗ Konso: Known for its unique cultural practices and sustainable agriculture.
∗ Burji: Known for its basha system of governance.
– Agaw Kingdom of Gojjam: Located in central Ethiopia, known for its resistance to the Christian kingdom.
– Gurage Chiefdoms: A group of chiefdoms in central Ethiopia, known for their unique social and political organization.
– Nilotic Peoples: Inhabited the western lowlands along the Ethio- Sudanese border, with a less centralized political structure.
∗ Gumuz: Known for their shifting cultivation practices.
∗ Shinasha: A Gonga group, known for their forest conservation traditions.
∗ Benishangul: Known for their beekeeping and trade.
– Gambella Peoples: A group of Nilotic peoples living in the Gambella region of western Ethiopia.
∗ Anywaa: Known for their village-based political organization.∗ Nuer: Known for their pastoralism.
∗ Majang: Known for their egalitarian society.
• Political Systems: Varied from centralized monarchies (e.g., Kafa, Yem) to less centralized systems based on councils of elders (e.g., Benishangul, Gambella).
• Economic Systems: trade.
Primarily based on agriculture, pastoralism, and
• Cultural Interactions: Intermarriage, trade, and religious exchange led to cultural blending and the development of shared traditions.
7.5 Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in
Ethiopia
• Major Population Movements: The 16th and 17th centuries saw signif-icant population movements in Ethiopia.
• Key Groups:
– Oromo: The largest and most influential group. Their expansion had a profound impact on the political and social landscape of Ethiopia.
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– Afar: Moved eastward, occupying the Afar Triangle.– Somali: Expanded into eastern Ethiopia.
– Argobba: Moved westward, settling in the Shewa region.
• Causes of Population Movement:
– Demographic Pressure: Population growth and the need for land and resources.
– Conflict: Wars between the Christian kingdom and Muslim sultanates.
• The Oromo Expansion: The Oromo expansion was a major historical event.
– Gadaa System: The Oromo’s age-grade system, which provided a basis for social and political organization, facilitated their expansion.– Impact on Ethiopia: The Oromo expansion led to changes in the political map of Ethiopia, cultural intermingling, and the weakening of the Christian kingdom.
7.6 The Gadaa System of the Oromo • Gadaa System: An age-grade system that provided a basis for social, political, and economic organization among the Oromo people.
• Key Features:
– Age Grades: The society was divided into age grades, with each grade having specific roles and responsibilities.
– Generation Sets: Five generation sets, each lasting 40 years.
– Egalitarian Values: Emphasized equality and shared power.
– Political Leadership: The Gadaa system provided a framework for political leadership, with the Abba Gadaa (leader) and the Chaffe (as-sembly).
7.7 Moggasa and Guddifacha • Moggasa: A system of adopting non-Oromo groups into Oromo clans.
• Guddifacha: A system of individual adoption.
• Impact: Helped integrate different communities into Oromo society and facilitated cultural exchange.
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7.8 Egalitarian Systems of Governance
• Egalitarian Democracy: Systems of government that emphasize equality and shared power.
• Examples in Ethiopia:
– Sidama: The luwa age-grade system and the Songo council of elders.– Gedeo: The ballee system of governance, with a council of elders called Yaa.
– Konso: A decentralized system with a council of elders called Hayyota.– Burji: The basha system of governance.
• Key Features:
– Council of Elders: Decision-making bodies composed of elders.– Age-Grade Systems: Societies are often organized into age grades with specific roles and responsibilities.
– Shared Power: Power is distributed among members of the commu- nity.
Unit 8:
Political, Social, and Economic Processes in Ethiopia, Mid-16th to Mid-19th C.
8.1 Peoples and States of the Eastern, Central, Southern, and Western Regions
• Decentralization of Power: The mid-16th to mid-19th centuries witnessed a decentralization of power in Ethiopia, with the emergence of several inde-
pendent states and principalities.
8.1.1 Southern States
• Omotic States and Peoples:
– Kafa: Ruled by a hereditary king called Tato, known for its coffee production and unique cultural traditions.
– Yem: Located in the Gibe region, also ruled by a Tato.
– Wolaita: Known for its enset cultivation and its traditional political system led by a Kawo.
– Gamo: Known for its unique political organization based on deres (autonomous units) and the duletha assembly.
– Gofa: Located in southwestern Ethiopia.
– Dawuro: Known for its agricultural practices and a traditional political system led by a Kati.
– Konta: Located in southwestern Ethiopia.
• Cushitic States:
– Kambata: Known for its strong traditional administration led by a Woma.
– Hadiya: Known for its distinct cultural traditions, including the Sera system of governance.
– Sidama: Known for its luwa age-grade system, with a strong emphasis on the role of elders.
– Gedeo: Known for its ballee system of governance.
– Konso: Known for its unique cultural practices and sustainable agri- culture.
– Burji: Known for its basha system of governance.
• Agaw Kingdom of Gojjam: Located in central Ethiopia, known for its resistance to the Christian kingdom and its unique cultural practices.
• Gurage Chiefdoms: A group of chiefdoms in central Ethiopia, known for their unique social and political organization, including the Yajoka Sera and the Ye Gordana Sera.
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8.1.2 Western States
• Oromo Monarchies: Gibe States: The Oromo people established monar-chies in the Gibe region in the early 19th century, including:
– Limmu-Ennarya: The earliest Gibe state, known for its control of trade routes and its strong ruler, Abba Bagibo.
– Jimma: A powerful state that emerged in the 18th century, known for its coffee production and its ruler, Abba Jifar I.
– Gumma: Known for its conflict with the neighboring state of Gera.– Gomma: The first Gibe state to convert to Islam.
– Gera: Known for its strong ruler, Tullu Gunji.
• Oromo Monarchies: region:
Leqa States: Two major states in the Wallaga
– Leqa Naqamte: Founded by Bakare Godana, known for its strong rulers, Moroda and Kumsa Moroda.
– Leqa Qellem: Founded by Tullu, known for its ruler, Jote.
• Sheikdoms and Peoples of Benishangul Gumuz: A group of Nilotic peoples living in the western lowlands along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
– Gumuz: Known for their shifting cultivation practices.
– Shinasha: A Gonga group, known for their forest conservation tradi- tions.
– Benishangul: Known for their beekeeping and trade.
• Local Chiefs of Gambella Peoples: The Gambella region in western Ethiopia is home to various Nilotic peoples, including:
– Anywaa: Known for their village-based political organization.
– Nuer: Known for their pastoralism.
– Majang: Known for their egalitarian society.
8.1.3 Eastern States: Harar, Afar, Somali
• Harar: An important city in eastern Ethiopia, known for its Islamic culture and trade.
– Sultanate of Adal: Adal, after its decline, became centered in Harar in the 16th century.
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– Emirate of Harar: Established in the 17th century by the Harari dynasty.
• Afar: Inhabited the Afar Triangle, known for their pastoralism, salt pro-duction, and resistance to external forces.
– Afar Sultanates: The Afar were organized into several sultanates, including Aussa, Bidu, Tadjoura, Rahaito, and Goobad.
• Somali: Inhabited the Horn of Africa, known for their pastoralism and clan-based social structure.
8.2 Gondarine Period
• Gondarine Period: The period from the mid-16th to the mid-19th century, when the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia was ruled from Gondar as its capital city.
• Establishment of Gondar: Founded by Emperor Fasiladas in 1636, ending the era of mobile capitals.
• Key Features:
– Urbanization: Gondar grew into a significant urban center.
– Architecture: Magnificent castles and palaces were built, reflecting a period of relative stability and prosperity.
– Trade: Gondar became an important commercial center.
– Religion: Christianity remained the dominant religion, with the ex- pansion of churches and monasteries.
• Decline: The Gondarine period faced challenges such as:
– Political Instability: Internal power struggles, court intrigues, and the rise of regional lords.
– Military Weakness: The kingdom’s military strength declined.
– Religious Disputes: Division within the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewa- hedo Church.
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8.3 The Zemene-Mesafint (The Era of Warlords) • Zemene-Mesafint (Era of Warlords): A period of political fragmentation in Ethiopia from 1769 to 1855.
• Causes: The decline of the Gondarine monarchy, the rise of powerful re-gional lords, and religious disputes.
• Key Features:
– Regional Power Struggles: Powerful warlords, often from different regions, vied for control of the Ethiopian state.
– Weakening of the Monarchy: The Gondarine emperors became fig- ureheads, with little real power.
– Political Instability: Constant warfare and unrest.
– Economic Decline: Disruption of trade, agricultural production, and general economic activity.
8.4 The Yejju Dynasty • Yejju Dynasty: A dynasty of Yejju Oromo rulers who gained control of northern Ethiopia in the late 18th century.
• Founder: Ali Gwangul (Ali I) established the dynasty in 1786.
• Key Features:
– Control of Northern Ethiopia: The Yejju dynasty controlled much of northern Ethiopia, with their power center at Debre Tabor.
– Puppet Emperors: The Yejju rulers often maintained puppet emper- ors in Gondar, but held real power.
• Key Rulers:
– Ras Gugsa (1803-1825): The most powerful ruler of the Yejju dy- nasty, who extended his influence over much of northern Ethiopia.
• Decline: The Yejju dynasty faced challenges from other regional lords and the rise of Tewodros II, who unified much of Ethiopia in the mid-19th century.
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8.5 The Kingdom of Shewa
• Kingdom of Shewa: A Christian kingdom in central Ethiopia that gained independence from the Gondarine monarchy in the 17th century.
• Founder: Negasi established the kingdom in the late 17th century.
• Key Features:
– Isolation: Shewa benefited from its isolation from the wars of the Zemene-Mesafint, allowing it to consolidate its power.
– Expansion: Expanded its territory under rulers like Sahle Sellassie (1813-1847).
– Trade: Developed its own trade networks.
– Foreign Relations: Established relationships with European powers, including Britain and France.
Unit 9:
The Age of Revolutions, 1750s to 1815
9.1 Industrial Capitalism in Europe
• Industrial Revolution: A period of rapid technological and economic change in Europe and the United States, beginning in the late 18th cen-tury and lasting until the 19th century.
• Key Characteristics:
– Mechanization: The use of machines to replace manual labor.
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– New Power Sources: The development of steam power and later electricity.
– Factory System: The concentration of manufacturing in factories.
– Growth of Cities: Mass migration of people from rural areas to urban centers for work.
• Key Inventions:
– Steam Engine: Revolutionized transportation and manufacturing.
– Spinning Jenny and Power Loom: Improved textile production.
– Railways: Facilitated transportation and trade.
• Consequences:
– Economic Growth: The Industrial Revolution led to unprecedented economic growth and wealth creation.
– Social Change: The rise of new social classes, including the industrial working class (proletariat) and the industrial capitalists (bourgeoisie).
– Urbanization: Rapid growth of cities, leading to overcrowding, poverty, and social problems.
– Environmental Degradation: Pollution from factories and indus- tries.
– Spread of Capitalism: The Industrial Revolution contributed to the spread of capitalism as an economic system.
9.2 The French Revolution
• French Revolution: A period of major social upheaval in France that began in 1789 and ended in 1799.
• Causes:
– Economic Inequality: A wide gap between the wealthy aristocracy and the impoverished peasantry and working class.
– Political Inequality: The French monarchy held absolute power and denied basic rights to most citizens.
– The Influence of Enlightenment Ideas: Philosophers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau promoted ideas of individual rights, liberty, and democracy.
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– Inspiration from the American Revolution: The success of the American Revolution inspired the French to seek change.
• Key Events:
– Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789): A symbolic event that marked the beginning of the revolution.
– Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (August 1789): A document that proclaimed the fundamental rights of all citi-zens.
– Reign of Terror (1793-1794): A period of violence and repression during which thousands of people were executed.
– Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon seized power in 1799, es- tablishing a dictatorship.
• Consequences:
– End of Feudalism: The French Revolution abolished feudal privileges and established a more egalitarian society.
– Rise of Nationalism: Strengthened French national identity.
– Spread of Revolutionary Ideas: The French Revolution inspired revolutions and reforms throughout Europe and beyond.
– Napoleonic Era: Napoleon’s rule led to the Napoleonic Wars, which spread French influence across Europe.
9.3 The Napoleonic Era
• Napoleonic Era: The period of Napoleon Bonaparte’s rule in France and Europe from 1799 to 1815.
• Rise of Napoleon: Napoleon emerged as a military leader during the French Revolution and seized power in a coup d’´etat in 1799.
• Reforms: Napoleon introduced numerous reforms in France, including:
– The Napoleonic Code: A comprehensive system of laws that codified many of the principles of the French Revolution.
– Centralization of Government: Strengthened the power of the cen- tral government.
– Education Reforms: Expanded education and created a system of public schools.
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– Economic Reforms: Established a national bank and promoted in- dustrial development.
• Military Expansion: Napoleon built a powerful army and conquered much of Europe, establishing a vast empire.
• The Napoleonic Wars: A series of wars that Napoleon fought against European coalitions.
• Defeat and Exile: Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and exiled to the island of St. Helena.
• Consequences:
– Spread of Revolutionary Ideas: Napoleonic conquests helped spread the ideas of the French Revolution throughout Europe.
– Rise of Nationalism: Nationalist movements were strengthened in many European countries.
– The Congress of Vienna: A conference of European powers in 1815 that aimed to restore order after the Napoleonic Wars.
9.4 The American War of Independence
• American Revolution (American War of Independence): A war fought between 1775 and 1783 in which the 13 British colonies in North America declared independence from Great Britain.
• Causes:
– Colonial Grievances: The colonists resented British policies, includ-ing taxation without representation, restrictions on trade, and the pres-ence of British troops.
– The Influence of Enlightenment Ideas: The colonists were in-spired by Enlightenment ideas of natural rights and the right to self-governance.
• Key Events:
– The First Continental Congress (1774): Colonists met to discuss grievances.
– The Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775): The first battles of the war.
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– Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776): Declared the inde- pendence of the colonies from Great Britain.
– The Treaty of Paris (1783): Officially recognized the independence of the United States.
• Consequences:
– The Birth of the United States: The creation of the independent United States of America.
– Spread of Democracy: The American Revolution inspired demo- cratic movements around the world.
– Abolition of Slavery: The movement to abolish slavery in the United States began during the American Revolution.
9.5 The Congress of Vienna
• Congress of Vienna: A meeting of European powers in 1815 that aimed to restore order to Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.
• Key Goals:
– Restoring the Balance of Power: Preventing any one nation from becoming too powerful.
– Restoring Monarchies: Restoring the monarchs who had been over- thrown by Napoleon.
– Creating a Lasting Peace: Preventing future wars.
• Key Figures:
– Klemens von Metternich: The Austrian foreign minister who played a major role in shaping the Congress.
– Tsar Alexander I: The Russian emperor.
– King Frederick William III: The Prussian king.– Lord Castlereagh: The British foreign minister.– Talleyrand: The French representative.
• Key Outcomes:
– Redrawing of European Borders: The Congress redrew the map of Europe, restoring many pre-revolutionary borders.
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– Creation of New Nations: The Kingdom of the Netherlands, com- bining the Dutch Republic and Belgium, was formed.
– Establishment of the Concert of Europe: A system of alliances between European powers aimed at maintaining peace and stability.
• Legacy: The Congress of Vienna helped create a period of relative peace in Europe, but its emphasis on monarchy and the suppression of nationalism ultimately contributed to tensions and eventually led to new conflicts.
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